Tocharians

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"Tusharas" and "Tukharas" redirect here. For the Tushara Kingdom, see Tushara Kingdom.

The Tocharians were the Tocharian-speaking inhabitants of the Tarim basin, making them the easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language in antiquity.

[edit] Archaeology

The Tarim mummies suggest that precursors of these easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language may have lived in the region of the Tarim Basin from around 1800 BC until finally they were assimilated by Uyghur Turks in the 9th century AD.

There is evidence both from the mummies and Chinese writings that many of them had blonde or red hair and blue eyes^{[citation needed]}, characteristics also found in central asia. This suggests the possibility that they were part of an early migration of speakers of Indo-European languages that ended in what is now the Tarim Basin in western China. According to a controversial theory, early invasions by Turkic speakers may have pushed Tocharian speakers out of the Tarim Basin and into ancient Sogdian where they became assimilated in the population. A later group of Tocharians were the Kushans and maybe some iranian tribes of the Hephthalites whose iranian population also settled in modern Afghanistan, North-Eastern Iran Usbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkestan while the nomadic turkish ones where defeated by Bahram Gur and the Gok-Turks who pushed them over the Hindukush mountains to Sindh (Pakistan) and North-West India.

The Tarim Basin mummies (1800 BC) and the Tocharian texts and frescoes from the Tarim Basin (AD 800) have been found in the same general geographical area, and are both connected to an Indo-European origin. The faces on these frescos were usually vandalized by Muslim iconoclasts since the Middle Ages. The mummies and the frescoes both point to White types with light eyes and hair color. There is no evidence that directly connects them however, as no texts were recovered from the grave sites.^{[citation needed]}

Mallory & Mair (2000:294–296, 314–318) argue that the Tocharian languages were introduced to the Tarim and Turpan basins from the Afanasevo culture to their immediate north. The Afanasevo culture (c. 3500–2500 BC) displays cultural and genetic connections with the Indo-European-associated cultures of the European steppe yet predates the specifically Indo-Iranian-associated Andronovo culture (c. 2000–900 BC) enough to isolate the Tocharian languages from Indo-Iranian linguistic innovations like satemization.^{[1]:260, 294–296, 314–318 [citation needed]}

[edit] Language

Main article: Tocharian languages

The Tocharians appear to have originally spoken two distinct languages of the Indo-European Tocharian family, an Eastern ("A") form and a Western ("B") form. According to some, only the Eastern ("A") form can be properly called "Tocharian", as the native name for the Western form is referred to as Kuchean (see below). Commonalities between the Tocharian languages and various other Indo-European language families (as with Celtic, Germanic, Balto-Slavic, even Italic or Greek) have been suggested, but the evidence does not support any close relationship with any other family. The only consensus is that Tocharian was already far enough removed, at an early date, from the other eastern Indo-European proto-languages (Proto-Balto-Slavic and Proto-Indo-Iranian), not to share some of the common changes that PBS and PII share, such as early palatalization of velars.

Tocharian A of the eastern regions seems to have declined in use as a popular language or mother tongue faster than did Tocharian B of the west. Tocharian A speakers probably yielded their original language to Turkic languages of immigrating Turkic peoples, while Tocharian B speakers were more insulated from outside linguistic influences.^{[citation needed]} It appears that Tocharian A ultimately became a liturgical language, no longer a living one, at the same time that Tocharian B was still widely spoken in daily life. Among the monasteries of the lands inhabited by Tocharian B speakers, Tocharian A seems to have been used in ritual alongside the Tocharian B of daily life.^{[citation needed]}

Besides the religious Tocharian texts, the texts include monastery correspondence and accounts, commercial documents, caravan permits, medical and magical texts, and a love poem. Their manuscript fragments, of the 8th centuries, suggest that they were no longer either as nomadic^{[citation needed]} or "barbarian (hu)" as the Chinese had considered them.^{[citation needed]}

According to the theory of former USSR scholar Ü.A. Zuev^[2] the Tocharians in the Kidan state in the territory of Manchuria spoke proto-Mongolian language, the medieval Tochars (Dügers) in the future Turkmenia spoke Oguz, and the Tochars (Digors) in the Northern Caucasus spoke in Alanian, i.e. in Sogdian-Türkic per Biruni. Meanwhile, Zuev concludes, their ideological traditions in many respects remained similar.

[edit] Historic role

The Tocharians, living along the Silk Road, had contacts with the Chinese, Persians, Indian and Turkic tribes. They might be the same as, or were related to, the Indo-European Yuezhi who fled from their settlements in eastern Tarim Basin after attacks by the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC (Shiji Chinese historical Chronicles, Chap. 123) and expanded south to Bactria and northern India to form the Kushan Empire.

The Tocharians who remained in the Tarim Basin adopted Buddhism, which, like their alphabet, came from northern India in the first century of the 1st millennium, through the proselytism of Kushan monks. The Kushans and the Tocharians seem to have played a part in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China.^{[citation needed]} Many apparently also practised some variant of Manichaeanism.^{[citation needed]}

Protected by the Taklamakan Desert from steppe nomads, the Tocharian culture survived past the 7th century.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Naming

The term Tocharians has a somewhat complicated history. It is based on the ethnonym Tokharoi (Greek Τόχαροι) used by Greek historians (e.g. Ptolemy VI, 11, 6). The first mention of the Tocharians appeared in the 1st century BCE, when Strabo presented them as a Scythian tribe, and explained that the Tokharians — together with the Assianis, Passianis and Sakaraulis — took part in the destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the second half of the 2nd century BCE:

"Most of the Scythians, beginning from the Caspian Sea, are called Dahae Scythae, and those situated more towards the east Massagetae and Sacae; the rest have the common appellation of Scythians, but each separate tribe has its peculiar name. All, or the greatest part of them, are nomads. The best known tribes are those who deprived the Greeks of Bactriana, the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, and Sacarauli, who came from the country on the other side of the Jaxartes, opposite the Sacae and Sogdiani."
(Strabo, 11-8-1)

These Tochari are identified with the Yuezhi and one of their major tribes, the Kushans.^{[citation needed]} The geographical term Tokharistan usually refers to 1st millennium Bactria (Chinese Daxia 大夏).

Today, the term is associated with the Indo-European languages known as "Tocharian". Based on a Turkic reference to Tocharian A as twqry, these languages were associated with the Kushan ruling class, but the exact relation of the speakers of these languages and the Kushan Tokharoi is uncertain, and some consider "Tocharian languages" a misnomer. Tocharian A is also known as East Tocharian, or Turfanian (of the city of Turfan), and Tocharian B is also known as West Tocharian, or Kuchean (of the city of Kucha)^{[citation needed]}

The term is so widely used, however, that this question is somewhat academic. Tocharians in the modern sense are, then, defined as the speakers of the Tocharian languages. These were originally nomads^{[citation needed]}, and lived in today's Xinjiang (Tarim basin). The native name of the historical Tocharians of the 6th to 8th centuries was, according to J. P. Mallory, possibly kuśiññe "Kuchean" (Tocharian B), "of the kingdom of Kucha and Agni", and ārśi (Tocharian A); one of the Tocharian A texts has ārśi-käntwā, "In the tongue of Arsi" (ārśi is probably cognate to argenteus, i.e. "shining, brilliant"). According to Douglas Q. Adams, the Tocharians may have called themselves ākñi, meaning "borderers, marchers".

[edit] Tocharians in Indian literature

The Atharavaveda-Parishishta^[3] associates the Tusharas with the Sakas, Yavanas and the Bahlikas. (Saka. Yavana.Tushara.Bahlikashcha). It also juxtaposes the Kambojas with the Bahlikas (Kamboja-Bahlika....^[4]. This shows the Tusharas probably were neighbors to the Shakas, Bahlikas (Bactrians), Yavanas or Yonas (Greeks) and the Kambojas in Transoxiana.

The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata associates the Tusharas with the Yavanas, Kiratas, Gandharas, Chinas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Kankas, Sabaras, Barbaras, Ramathas etc. and brands them all as Barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha, leading lives of Dasyus.^[5]

The Sabha Parva of the Mahabharata^[6] states that kings of the Kambojas, Sakas, Tusharas, Kankas and Romakas, etc., had brought with them as tribute camels, horses, elephants and gold on the occasion of Rajasuya Yajna performed by Yudhisthira at Hastinapura. Later the Tusharas, Sakas and Yavanas had joined the military division of the Kambojas and had participated in the Mahabharata war on Kauravas' side.^[7] Karna Parva of Mahabharata describes the Tusharas as very ferocious and wrathful warriors.

At one place in Mahabharata, the Tusharas find mention with the Shakas and the Kankas.^[8] At another place they come with the Shakas, Kankas and Pahlavas.^[9] And at other places they come with the Shakas, Yavanas and the Kambojas^[10] etc.

Puranic texts like Vayu Purana, Brahmanda Purana and Vamana Purana, etc., associate the Tusharas with the Shakas, Barbaras, Kambojas, Daradas, Viprendras, Anglaukas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc and refer to them all as the tribes of Udichya i.e. north or north-west.^[11]

Puranic literature further states that the Tusharas and other tribes like the Gandharas, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Yavanas, Barbaras, Khasa, and Lampakas, etc., would be invaded and annihilated by King Kalki at the end of Kaliyuga. And they were annihilated by king Pramiti at the end of Kaliyga.^[12]

According to Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana, river Chakshu (Oxus or Amu Darya) flowed through the countries of Tusharas, Lampakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and the Shakas etc.^[13]

The Brihat-Katha-Manjari^[14] of Pt Kshemendra relates that around 400 AD, Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth by destroying the barbarians" like the Tusharas, Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Hunas etc.

Rajatarangini of Kalhana attests that king Laliditya Muktapida, the eighth century ruler of Kashmir had invaded the tribes of the north and after defeating the Kambojas, he immediately faced the Tusharas. The Tusharas did not give a fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battle field.^[15] This shows that during 8th century AD, a section of the Tusharas were living as neighbors of the Kambojas near the Oxus valley.

By the sixth century CE the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira also locates the Tusharas with Barukachcha (Bhroach) and Barbaricum (on the Indus Delta) near the sea in western India.^[16] The Romakas formed a colony of the Romans near the port of Barbaricum in Sindhu Delta.^[17] This shows that a section of the Tusharas had also moved to western India and was living there around Vrahamihira's time.

Exiting the Iron Pass, the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang entered Tu-huo-lo (Tushara) country which lay to the north of the great snow mountains (Hindukush), to the south of Iron Pass and to the east of Persia. During the time of Xuanzang, the country of Tushara was divided into 27 administrative units, each having its separate chieftain ^[18] The Kiumitos of Xuanzang's accounts (or the Kumijis of Al-Maqidisi) appear to be Kambojas who were living neighbors to the Tusharas north of the Hindukush in the Oxus valley^[19][20]

The tenth century CE Kavyamimamsa of Rajshekhar lists the Tusharas with several other tribes of the Uttarapatha viz: the Shakas, Kekeyas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Limpakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Turushakas, Barbaras, Ramathas etc.^[21]. This attests that the Tusharas were different from the Turushakas with whom they are often confused by some writers.

There is also a mention of Tushara-Giri (Tushara mountain) in the Mahabharata, Harshacharita of Bana Bhata and Kavyamimansa of Rajshekhar.

The Rishikas are said to be same people as the Yuezhi.^[22] The Kushanas or Kanishkas are also the same people.^[23] Aurel Stein says that the Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokarai) were a branch of the Yuezhi.^[24] P. C. Bagchi holds that the Yuezhi, Tocharioi and Tushara were identical.^[25] Thus, the Rishikas, Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi), Kushanas and the Yuezhi were probably either a single people, or members of a confederacy.

Pompeius Trogus remarks that Asio were lords of the Tochari. It is generally believed that they are same as the Rishikas of the Mahabharata which people are equivalent to Asii (in prakrit] ^[26]. Dr V. S. Aggarwala also equates the Rishikas with the Asii or Asioi ^[27]. George Rawlinson also observes that "The Asii or Asiani were closely connected with the Tochari and the Sakarauli (Saracucse?) who are found connected with both the Tochari and the Asiani"^[28]. If the Rishikas of the Mahabharata were same as the Tukharas, then the observation from George Rawlinson is in line with the Mahabharata^[29] statement which also closely allies the Rishikas with the Parama Kambojas [4] and places them both in the Sakadvipa ^[30]. The Kambojas (i.e. the southern branch of the Parama Kambojas), are the same as the classical Assaceni/Assacani (Aspasio/Assakenoi of Arrian) and the Aśvayana and Aśvakayana of Panini ^[31]. They are also mentioned by Megasthenes who spells them as Osii (probably = Asii), Asoi, Aseni etc, all living on upper Indus in eastern Afghanistan ^[32].

Sabha Parva of Mahabharata states that the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were allied tribes ^[33]. Like the "Parama Kambojas", the Rishikas of the Transoxian region are similarily styled as "Parama Rishikas" ^[34]. Based on the syntactical construction of the Mahabharata verse 5.5.15 ^[35] and verse 2.27.25 ^[36], the outstanding Sanskrit scholar Ishwa Mishra believes that the Rishikas were a section of the Kambojas i.e. Parama Kambojas. Dr V. S. Aggarwala too, relates the Parama Kambojas of the Trans-Pamirs to the Rishikas of the Mahabharata ^[37] and also places them in the Sakadvipa (or Scythia) ^[38]. According to Dr B. N. Puri, the Kambojas were a branch of the Tukharas.^[39]. Some scholars write that the Kambojas were a branch of the Yuezhi themselves ^[40].

[edit] References

[edit] See also

• Tocharian languages
• Tarim mummies
• Togarmah
• 突厥 Tūjué
• Hephthalite
• Kushan Empire
• Sogdiana
• Yuezhi
• Rishikas
• Parama Kambojas

[edit] Books and magazines

Note: Recent discoveries have rendered obsolete some of René Grousset's classic The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, published in 1939, which, however, still provides a broad background against which to assess more modern detailed studies.

• Baldi, Philip. 1983. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. Carbondale. Southern Illinois University Press.
• Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. 1999. The Mummies of Ürümchi. London. Pan Books.
• Beekes, Robert. 1995. Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Philadelphia. John Benjamins.
• Hemphill, Brian E. and J.P. Mallory. 2004. "Horse-mounted invaders from the Russo-Kazakh steppe or agricultural colonists from Western Central Asia? A craniometric investigation of the Bronze Age settlement of Xinjiang" in American Journal of Physical Anthropology vol. 125 pp 199ff.
• Lane, George S. 1966. "On the Interrelationship of the Tocharian Dialects," in Ancient Indo-European Dialects, eds. Henrik Birnbaum and Jaan Puhvel. Berkeley. University of California Press.
• Mallory, J. P. & Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, London: Thames & Hudson.
• Walter, Mariko Namba 1998 Tocharian Buddhism in Kucha: Buddhism of Indo-European Centum Speakers in Chinese Turkestan before the 10th Century C.E. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 85. October, 1998.
• Xu, Wenkan 1995 “The Discovery of the Xinjiang Mummies and Studies of the Origin of the Tocharians” The Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 23, Number 3 & 4, Fall/Winter 1995, pp.357-369.
• Xu, Wenkan 1996 “The Tokharians and Buddhism” In: Studies in Central and East Asian Religions 9, pp. 1-17.[5]
• Zuev, Ü.A. 2002, Early Türks: Outline of history and ideology, Almaty, "Daik-Press" ISBN 9985-441-52-9 (In Russian)

[edit] External links

• Tocharian alphabet.
• Tocharian alphabet
• Modern studies are developing a Tocharian dictionary.
• Mark Dickens, 'Everything you always wanted to know about Tocharian'.

ca:Tocaris da:Tokharerne de:Tocharer es:Tocarios fr:Tokhariens is:Tokkarar it:Tocari ja:トハラ pl:Tocharowie pt:Tocarianos fi:Tokaarit zh:吐火罗