Terra Nova Expedition

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Image:1-33terranova.jpg
Panorama of McMurdo Sound showing Mt. Erebus and the Terra Nova

The Terra Nova Expedition (1910–1913) was a British expedition led by Robert Falcon Scott with two principal objectives: to be the first to reach the geographic South Pole, and to undertake scientific research and exploration along the coast and interior of Antarctica. The name was taken from the ship, Terra Nova which transported and provided support to the expedition. The expedition was most notable for its failed attempt to be the first to reach the geographic South Pole and for the death of Scott and four of his companions. For details of the factors contributing to the failure of this aspect of the expedition see Robert Falcon Scott: The Debate.

Contents

[edit] Prior Antarctic (Ross Sea) Expeditions

The Terra Nova Expedition was one of several undertaken in the Ross Sea area of Antarctica from 1840 to 1910. These expeditions pursued a mix of survey, scientific and commercial activities. The Southern Ocean around Antarctica was an area of growing commercial importance in the late 1800s due to the rapid expansion of whaling. Private and Government interests sponsored expeditions with a view to establishing bases in Antarctica. They sought to exploit the whale and seal populations and investigate the potential for mineral extraction.

At the turn of the century public attention began to focus on the South Pole. Fridtjof Nansen's failed attempt to reach the North Pole in 1895, and Robert Peary's apparently successful attempt in 1909 left the South Pole as the 'last geographic challenge'. The Ross Sea, the southernmost point of Antarctica at which a landing could be made, was an ideal location from which to launch an attempt to reach the South Pole.

Despite a tradition of States conducting exploration only in those areas of Antarctica that they had a role in initially discovering, both Norway and Britain had a history of exploration activity in the Ross Sea prior to the Terra Nova expedition.

[edit] Preparations

[edit] Terra Nova Expedition Members

Image:Robert falcon scott.jpg
Leader of the expedition, Robert Falcon Scott

The names of expedition members are grouped here according to their role in the major journeys during the expedition, with other significant journeys and previous Antarctic experience noted against each name. Career achievements subsequent to the Terra Nova expedition are not included. This list only included members of the expedition 'ashore', and not the ships crew - who however were technically part of the expedition and, in the case of Commander Harry Pennell, took an active role in survey and logistics work.

South Pole Journey - South Pole Group. Reached 90° South on 17 January 1912.
South Pole Journey - Last Supporting Group. Turned back at 87°32′ South on January 4 1912. Photograph
South Pole Journey - Second Supporting Group. Turned back at 85°15′ South on December 22 1911.
South Pole Journey - Dog Team Group. Turned back at the bottom of the Beardmore Glacier on December 11 1911.
Northern (Cape Adare & Evans Cove) Group.
Cape Evans Base Group.
Cape Evans Base Group Departed on Terra Nova April 1912.
Cape Evans Base Group Arrived on Terra Nova April 1912.
  • W. W. Archer. Navy Cook.
  • Thomas S. Williamson. Navy Petty Officer. Search party (1912).

[edit] Voyages of the Terra Nova in Support of the Expedition

Note[1]

  • November 26, 1910 Sailed from Lyttelton
  • January 4, 1911 Arrive Cape Evans, Ross Island, Antarctica. Unloaded expedition members and supplies
  • January 28, 1911 Depart with Eastern Party for King Edward VII land (via Butter Point to land Western Geological Party)
  • February 1, 1911 Returning westward after failure to land Eastern Party , encounter Fram in the Bay of Whales
  • February 8 1911 Arrived Hut Point, Ross Island, embarked 2 ponies and left news of Amundsen
  • February 9 1911 Depart with renamed Northern Party for Cape Adare
  • February 18 1911 Arrived Cape Adare. Unloaded Northern Party
  • April 1 1911 Arrived Lyttleton, New Zealand. Survey work in NZ area
  • December 15 1911 Depart Lyttleton for Cape Evans via Cape Adare
  • January 4, 1912 Arrive Cape Adare, take Northern Party aboard
  • January 8, 1912 Arrive Evans Coves, 250 miles south of Cape Adare, unload Northern Party
  • February 6, 1912 Arrive Cape Evans. Unload 7 Indian mules
  • February 19 1912 Sail north to pick up Northern Party at Evans Coves. Unsuccessful, proceed to McMurdo Sound
  • February 28 1912 Arrive off Hut Point. Take aboard 9 returning men and leave 2 replacements, sails for second attempt to relieve Northern Party, unsuccessful, returns to Cape Evans
  • March 4 1912 Sails from Cape Evans for New Zealand after third failed attempt to relieve Northern Party
  • April 3 1912 Arrive Lyttleton, New Zealand

[edit] Cape Evans: Base of Operations

Image:Terra nova hut inside.jpg
Inside the Terra Nova Hut at Cape Evans

After scouting unsuitable landing sites around Cape Crozier on the eastern side of Ross Island, the Terra Nova sailed to McMurdo Sound on the west of the island where 3 previous expeditions had landed and overwintered. A landing was made at Cape Evans, approximately 20 km north of Scott's 1902 base on Hut Point. Scott hoped that the Cape Evans location would be accessible by sea for a longer period than Hut Point location, mindful that the pack ice closed off the entire area in winter, and could—as happened in 1901—trap ships in the ice.[2] In addition to the expedition members, 17 ponies, 32 dogs, 2 motorised sleds, some 30 tons of stores and a complete prefabricated accommodation hut measuring 50 feet by 25 feet were put ashore. The hut, known as Scott's Hut, still stands at Cape Evans today.


[edit] Expedition Journeys

[edit] Depot Laying (1911)

On January 24, 1911, a team of thirteen[3] set out with 2 dog teams and 8 ponies with the intention of laying supply depots for use by the group attempting the journey to the South Pole in the following spring. Their departure was somewhat rushed, driven by consideration of the impending breakup of the sea ice that gave them a direct route to Hut Point on the south west corner of Ross Island. A supply depot was established at Hut Point, at Scott's 1902 camp, and at a series of points further south culminating in the One Ton Depot, approximately 130 miles from Hut Point. This last depot was laid on February 13, 1911.[4] It was approximately 30 miles short of Scott's intended location goal of (80° S) latitude, but was as much as could be achieved with the ponies. They had been pulling weights of up to 900 kg[5] in difficult conditions, particularly soft snow, and were weakened from spending five weeks on the heaving deck of the ship, compounded by unsatisfactory rations and cold temperatures on the sledging journey.[6] Scott had brought south specially made snow-shoes for the ponies, but in the rush to get away before the sea ice broke up there had been insufficient time to train the ponies with them, and by the time it was realized that they were required (with or without the training) the sea ice behind had broken up cutting them off from Cape Evans. The failure to lay the depots according to the original plan was one step in a long chain of events that led to the death of the group returning from the South Pole the following year.

[edit] Northern Party (1911 to 1912)

Scott's intention was that a second group, called the Eastern Party and led by Victor Campbell, would travel on the Terra Nova to the mainland coast of King Edward VII's Land, and over-winter there in order to perform scientific work and exploration. After failing to find a suitable landing site, on its way back towards Cape Evans the Terra Nova found Amundsen's expedition at the Bay of Whales, the southernmost point of the Ross Sea. The Terra Nova returned to Cape Evans to pass on the news of the discovery of Amundsen's party. Campbell's party was then renamed the Northern Party, and sailed northwards to be put ashore at Cape Adare, where they built a hut near Norwegian explorer Carstens Borchgrevink's old quarters.[7]

The Northern Party spent the winter of 1911 in the hut at Cape Adare, but could not perform as much sledging as they planned in the following summer of 1911-1912, as the sea-ice had moved out early in the year, and they were unable to find a route through the mountains to the plateau.[8] The Terra Nova returned from New Zealand (where it was gathering further supplies) on January 4, 1912, and it was decided to move Campbell's party to Evans Cove, approximately 250 miles south of Cape Adare and 400 miles north west of Cape Evans. They were dropped off on January 8, to be picked up again on February 18. After their sledging and geological work was completed, they had skeleton rations left for four weeks: it was not expected that the Terra Nova would have any trouble picking them up. However, due to heavy pack ice, the ship was unable to reach them, and the group was forced to over-winter in a snow cave on what they later called Inexpressible Island.

By March 1912, with Scott and the Polar Party missing and presumed dead, Atkinson had taken command. There were limited resources and fresh men and dogs to carry out both a rescue of the Northern Party and recovery of the Polar Party's bodies and diaries. It was decided to send four men up the coast in order to meet Campbell if he was attempting to sledge to Hut Point. This party left Hut Point on 17th April, but the attempt failed and the rescuers returned to Cape Evans on 1st May[9]

The privations of the Noerthern Party over the winter of 1912 were extraordinary; the men suffered frostbite, hunger, dysentery, and the abominable winds on the island. Cooking all winter with a blubber stove in the snow cave brought its own discomforts, as the men's skin, clothes, and gear became blackened with soot which also choked their throats and inflamed their eyes.

The men started home for Hut Point on September 30, 1912, some two hundred miles down the coast, which would include the crossing of the Drygalski Glacier. Browning was very ill and Dickason almost crippled by dysentery. They reached Hut Point on November 5.[10]

Image:2-33terranova.jpg
Map of route taken to the South Pole showing supply stops and important events. Scott was found frozen to death with several men south of the 1 Ton Supply depot in a tent, marked Tent, on the map

[edit] Cape Crozier (June–August 1911)

On June 22, 1911 a party of three, Wilson, Bowers and Cherry-Garrard, set out from Hut Point, hauling 253 lb (115 kg) of gear per man, to study Emperor Penguin embryology at Cape Crozier. The expedition was proposed some fifteen months earlier by Dr. Wilson[11], a zoologist. (A secondary purpose for the journey was that Scott wanted the men to experiment with food rations in preparation for the Plateau stage of the Polar Journey the following summer.[12]) At this time, the only known Emperor penguin rookery was at Cape Crozier. Chicks had been found at this location in September, and Dr. Wilson guessed that the eggs must be laid at the beginning of July (Antarctic mid-winter).[13] It was the plan of the expedition to obtain egg samples for scientific study.

While previous expeditions had over-wintered in Antarctica, none had attempted exploration work during this season of perpetual night and storms where temperatures could reach minus 70 degrees Fahrenheit (−55°C). The group suffered considerable privations. Cherry-Garrard described the nineteen days it took to get to Cape Crozier as "a horror" in which gear, clothes, and sleeping bags were constantly iced up. On the night of July 5 the temperature dipped to -75°F (-59°C), at breakfast it was -70°F (-55°C) and at lunch almost -77°F (-°60).[14]

Arriving at Cape Crozier, the men build an igloo from snow blocks, stone, and a sheet of wood brought for the roof. They arrived early enough to be the first humans to witness Emperor penguins with their eggs, and collected several samples. However, they nearly died when their shelter was destroyed in a blizzard with winds that Bowers measured at storm force 11 (the Beaufort scale measures wind from force 0-12). The men sheltered in their sleeping bags for 3 days, and when the storm blew over, discovered that their tent, to be relied upon on the return journey, had blown away. Incredibly, it was found about a half a mile away. The group returned to Cape Evans on August 1, 1911. Wilson, notably, had refused to abandon their specimens on the return journey despite being in considerable peril of dying through exposure and exhaustion. The three eggs, which were the product of the journey, ended up first at the Natural History Museum in South Kensington, then went to the University of Edinburgh to be studied.[15]

Cherry-Garrard afterwards described this as the "worst journey in the world"[16] and lent this to the title of the book that he subsequently (1922) wrote about the entire expedition.

[edit] South Pole (October 1911 to March 1912)

The South Pole journey of 1766 statute miles from Hut Point[17] was made with four teams, only the last of which was intended to go on to the South Pole. The other teams were engaged in laying supplies for the outbound and returning groups. The teams consisted of the Main Party who would go to the Pole, the Last and Second Supporting groups, and the two dog teams led by Meares and Gerof.

The "Motor Party" consisting of Day, Lashly, Lieutenant Evans, and Hooper started out with the two motor sledges on October 24, 1911. They were to haul loads to latitude 80° 30' and wait for the other teams to catch up. By November 1, both motor sledges had broken down and the men man-hauled what they could pull to their assigned location on November 15. The other teams, which left Evans Cove on October 31, reached them on November 21.

By December 4, 1911 the expedition was camped within 13 miles of the "Gateway", the entrance to the Beardmore Glacier which is a gap between Mount Hope and the mainland, filled with drifted snow. A blizzard hit and the men were forced to camp until December 9, and had to use rations which were not intended to be consumed until the Glacier journey.[18] When the blizzard lifted, the remaining ponies were shot, the meat depoted or packed on sledges, and the men formed into three four-man teams. At this point, the Main Party consisted of Scott, Wilson, Oates, and Petty Officer Evans; the Last Supporting Group consisted of Lieutenant Evans, Atkinson, Wright, and Lashly; the Second Supporting Group consisted of Bowers, Cherry-Garrard, Crean, and Keohane.[19]

The dog teams, led by Meares and Gerof, turned back on December 11, 1911, reaching Hut Point on January 4, 1912. It was thought that the heavily crevassed glacier was not navigable by dog team. It was Scott's intention that the dog teams would return to base, pick up more supplies and head back out to lay further supply depots for the returning parties including Scott's own. In this sense Scott was placing considerable reliance on the dogs teams' performance.

The men reached the top of the Beardmore on December 20, 1911 and laid the Upper Glacier Depot. Scott changed his mind on the composition of the three groups, deciding that the first four to turn back would be Atkinson the doctor, Cherry-Garrard the zoologist, Wright the physicist, and Keohane. Essentially this group comprised the scientific staff, who turned back north on December 22 at latitude 85° 15'.[20] Scott continued further south with the remaining teams that were, except for Wilson, army and navy men who had been with Scott since the Discovery days. The Second Supporting Group got back to Hut Point on January 26, 1912 to find that the dog teams had not been able to get back out to resupply the depots. It was particularly important that this be done for the South Pole party, as the earlier returning parties would be depleting stores at every depot along the way. Cherry-Garrard and Gerof prepared to go out on the journey known as the One Ton Depot resupply journey.

The Last Supporting Group, comprising Lieutenant Evans, Crean and Lashly, turned back on January 4, 1912 at latitude 87° 32',[21] approximately half way between the top of the Beardmore Glacier and the South Pole. Travelling as a party of four on the southward journey, only three came back, Petty Officer Evans having transferred to Scotts group. Lieutenant Evans became seriously ill on the return journey, and only through the efforts of Crean and Lashley survived. This group, arriving at Hut Point on February 22, 1912, brought back news that Scott was travelling at a better than expected rate, which led to some impetus being put into Cherry-Garrard's resupply trip, it being hoped (but not planned) that he might rendezvous with Scott at the One Ton Depot in early March.

The South Pole group now consisted of Scott, Bowers, Oates, Wilson and Petty Officer Evans. They continued man-hauling sledges in reasonably good conditions and reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912, discovering that Amundsen had been there one month previously. Amundsen had left a tent, some supplies and a letter (in case he failed to return safely) which he asked Scott to deliver to King Haakon of Norway.

Amundsen's earlier arrival had been predicted by Scott in 1911 as soon as he learnt that Amundsen was based in the Bay of Whales, further south than Scott, and was intending to rely wholly on dogs. The significance of that for Scott was not that dogs were superior to pony or man hauling (and in fact Scott used dogs, man-hauling, motorised tractors and ponies), but that Scott's mixed hauling strategy necessitated delaying the start of his haul to the South Pole until such time as the weather was moderate enough for the less hardy ponies.

Scott's party turned homewards the next day, and for three weeks made reasonable progress, averaging fourteen miles per day. The season was getting late, however, and temperatures were falling. Reaching each depot and finding sufficient food and particularly heating oil became problematic. As temperatures fell below minus 20 degrees Fahrenheit, snow tended to become hard and coarse, losing its ability to lubricate the bottom of skis and pulling the sleds became increasingly difficult. Scott was facing conditions later in the short Antarctic summer than had Amundsen. Ultimately it was Scott's delay in setting out that reduced his margins of error to the point where tragedy was inevitable.

By February 7, 1912, they had reached the supply depot at the top of the Beardmore Glacier, and began their descent. Evans had been suffering from frostbite, and his health began to deteriorate. He died shortly afterwards near the bottom of the Beardmore. It was thought that he had been concussed by one or more of several falls on the treacherous glacier.[22] The group may have been suffering from dehydration, and to some degree malnutrition, by this stage which led to problems with wounds failing to heal. Oates, carrying an old war wound and the effects of frostbite, became increasingly incapable, and on 17 March 1912 while apparently lucid stepped outside the tent with the thereafter famous words, "I am just going outside and I may be some time." Oates' intentional sacrifice was not enough to save the remaining members of the group who were faced every day with fewer supplies, and less mileage achieved. On 10 March 1912, Scott calculated they had food for another 7 days, but were 9 days from the nearest supply dump, the One Ton Depot approximately 140 south of Cape Evans. By 20 March they were 11 miles, approximately 2 to 3 days from One Ton Depot when blizzards came in restricting them to their tent, where some 8 to 9 days later they died. Scott's final diary entry dated March 29, 1912 ends with the words:

Every day we have been ready to start for our depot 11 miles away, but outside of the door of the tent it remains a whirling drift. I do not think we can hope for any better things now. We shall stick it out to the end, but we are getting weaker, of course, and the end cannot be far. It seems a pity but I do not think I can write any more. For God's sake look after our people.

[edit] One Ton Depot Resupply (February-March 1912)

Undertaken by Cherry-Garrard and Dimitri Gerof driving two dog teams. Leaving Hut Point on February 25, they arrived at One Ton Depot on 1 March 1912 with food and heating oil supplies. Cherry-Garrards' instructions were to resupply the dump and then escort the South Pole group home from One Ton if they had arrived there, but not to go beyond One Ton himself or to take any risks with the dogs.[23] Scott was expected to arrive at One Ton in early March based on information about Scott's rate of progress that had been brought back by the last return group. Scott's original estimate was that he would arrive there by late March. Cherry-Garrard waited 10 days and then turned back, concerned about lack of food for the dogs and the condition of his companion. At that time Scott was 55 miles further south in deteriorating weather. This equated to nine days' march at their current pace, and they had food remaining for seven. Cherry-Garrard and Dimitri arrived back at Hut Point on 15 March. Atkinson and Keohane who were at Hut Point made a foray south between March 27 and April 1, but could not reach the One Ton supply depot, noting that weather conditions were extreme, blizzards and minus 40 °F (−40 °C). By April 1 Atkinson and Cherry-Garrard came to the view that Scott's group were unlikely to have survived.

In early March, just prior to arriving at One Ton, Cherry-Garrard and Dimitri were making approximately 9 miles a day. If they had continued immediately beyond One Ton on March 1, and followed the cairns marking the trail by which Scott was expected to return it is conceivable that they might have encountered the South Pole group on or around March 11 at a point 80 miles south of One Ton. If they did not miss the South Pole group on the trail or meet other delays they might have combined forces and arrived back at One Ton on or around March 20. Blizzards closed in on the area on that day. Given the supplies at One Ton they might have been able to make it back to Hut Point by 1 April, but at that time Atkinson reported that conditions were extremely bad south of Hut Point. Ultimately it would have been a very 'close run thing'. Any delay in Cherry-Garrard setting out from One Ton (or delay resulting from missing each other on the trail) would have almost certainly meant that the combined group would have been caught in very severe weather even before getting back to One Ton and certainly between there and Hut Point, a distance of 140 miles. It is quite possible, with Scott, Wilson, Bowers and Dimitri in poor health, that even with the help of the dogs the combined party might have perished.

Cherry-Garrard, at the beginning of March, and even when he left One Ton on 10 March, had no reason to believe the South Pole group were in difficulties. The last return group had reported they were moving strongly, the weather at One Ton was reasonable on 10 March, and Scott's original estimate was that he would be arriving there in about 7 to 10 days. Cherry-Garrard was, however, certainly troubled by the question of whether he made the right decisions during this journey, although no suggestion of blame ever attached to him.

[edit] Search Party (October-November 1912)

The Terra Nova had taken off 8 men and left 2 replacements in February 1912. The remaining expedition members waited through the winter, continuing their scientific work, until setting out on October 29, 1912 to search for Scott's group.

On November 12, 1912, the search party found the frozen bodies of Robert Falcon Scott, Edward Adrian Wilson and Henry Robertson Bowers 11 miles south of the One Ton supply depot. Snow had drifted up to almost the top of their tent.

After collecting personal effects and diaries, Bowers' meteorological logs and 14 kg of geological specimens, the tent was collapsed over the bodies, and a cairn of snow was raised to mark the site. Tryggve Gran's skis were fashioned into a cross on top, while he took Scott's skis for the journey home.

Knowing from Scott's diary that Oates had stepped out of the tent into the blizzard some 15 miles further south, the search party went on, but acknowledged the hopelessness of finding his body and on November 15, 1912 raised a cairn near where they believed he had died.

On the return journey the search party recovered some further geological samples and photographic film left behind by the last return group. The search party returned to Cape Evans on November 26, 1912, and were eventually picked up by the Terra Nova on January 22, 1913.

[edit] Expedition memorabilia and sites of historic interest

[edit] References

  1. ^ Scott's Last Expedition Vol II Ch V "Voyages of the Terra Nova"
  2. ^ R.F. Scott, Scott's Last Expedition, vol. i, pp. 88-90
  3. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, The Worst Journey in the World, Carroll & Graf, 1922, p. 107
  4. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 119
  5. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 110
  6. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 119
  7. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. xxxvii
  8. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. xxxix
  9. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. xl
  10. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. xlviii
  11. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 239
  12. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 261
  13. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 240
  14. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 253
  15. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 306
  16. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 304
  17. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 327
  18. ^ R.F. Scott, Scott's Last Expedition, vol. i, p. 489
  19. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 364
  20. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 394
  21. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 394
  22. ^ R.F. Scott, Scott's Last Expedition, vol. i, p. 573
  23. ^ Apsley Cherry-Garrard, ibid, p. 425

[edit] See also

[edit] Further reading

  • Scott's Last Expedition, Vols I and II: Smith Elder & Co 1913
  • Bainbridge, B., "The Birthday Boys" (1995) (a fictionalized account of the Terra Nova's fateful expedition)
  • Cherry-Garrard, A. (1922, 2001 reprint). The Worst Journey in the World. Stackpole Books. ISBN 1-58976-120-0
  • Fiennes, R. Race to the Pole : Tragedy, Heroism, and Scott's Antarctic Quest. Hyperion. ISBN 1-4013-0047-2
  • Hattersley-Smith, G. (1984). The Norwegian with Scott: The Antarctic Diary of Tryggve Gran, 1910-13. Stationery Office. ISBN 0-11-290382-7
  • Jones, M. (2003). The Last Great Quest : Captain Scott's Antarctic Sacrifice. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-280483-9
  • Lambert, K. (2004). The Longest Winter: The Incredible Survival of Captain Scott's Lost Party. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-58834-195-X
  • Scott, R. et al. (1996). Scott's Last Expedition: The Journals. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-0382-2
  • Solomon, S. (2002). The Coldest March: Scott's Fatal Antarctic Expedition. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09921-5
  • Ponting, H. G. (1921). The Great White South. Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1161-8

[edit] External links

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