SPQR

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SPQR is an initialism from a Latin phrase, Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and the Roman People"), referring to the government of the ancient Roman Republic, and used as an official signature of the government. It appears on coins, at the end of documents made public by inscription in stone or metal, in dedications of monuments and public works, and was emblazoned on the standards of the Roman legions. The phrase appears many hundreds of times in Roman political, legal and historical literature, including the speeches of Marcus Tullius Cicero and the history of Titus Livius. Since the meaning and the words never vary, except for the spelling and inflection of populus in literature, Latin dictionaries classify it as a formula.

In modern usage, SPQR is the motto of the city of Rome and appears in the city's coat of arms, as well as on many of the city's civic buildings and manhole covers. Benito Mussolini used it in his propaganda about the "New Roman Empire".^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Historical context

The date of origin of the phrase is not known, but its meaning places it generally in the Roman Republic. The two legal entities mentioned are the Senatus and the Populus Romanus. The populus is sovereign and the combination is so as well, but the Senate alone is not. Under the monarchy neither was sovereign. The phrase can be dated therefore to no earlier than the foundation of the Republic.

This signature continued in use under the Roman Empire. The emperors were considered the representatives of the people even though the senatus consulta, or decrees of the Senate, were made at the pleasure of the emperor.

Populus Romanus in Roman literature is a phrase meaning the government of the Republic. When the Romans named governments of other countries they used populus in the singular or plural, such as populi Priscorum Latinorum, "the governments of the Old Latins". Romanus is the established adjective used to distinguish the Romans, as in civis Romanus, "Roman citizen". The locative, Romae, "at Rome", was never used for that purpose. The Roman people appear very often in law and history in such phrases as dignitas, maiestas, auctoritas, libertas populi Romani, the "dignity, majesty, authority, freedom of the Roman people." They were a populus liber, "a free people." There was an exercitus, imperium, iudicia, honores, consules, voluntas of this same populus: "the army, rule, judgements, offices, consuls and will of the Roman people". They appear in early Latin as Popolus and Poplus, so the habit of thinking of themselves as free and sovereign was quite ingrained.

The Romans believed that all authority came from the people. It could be said that similar language seen in more modern political and social revolutions directly comes from this usage. People in this sense meant the whole government. The latter, however, was essentially divided into the aristocratic Senate, whose will was executed by the consuls and praetors, and the comitia centuriata, "committees of the hundreds", whose will came to be safeguarded by the Tribunes.

In more official contexts therefore Senatus Populusque Romanus was used for signing-off purposes. The singular was used for the nominative case. The plural could be used in other cases: senatu populoque consentientibus, "the senate and people ratifying" (an ablative absolute construction). In society SPQR was often "bully" language, the same as threatening to report or prosecute someone today.^{[citation needed]} Cicero used it to good effect.

[edit] Modern variants

The usage has been revived in modern times, throughout Europe and beyond. SPQ- is sometimes used as an assertion of municipal pride and civic rights. Reggio Emilia has SPQR in its coat of arms, standing for "Senatus Populusque Regiensis". There have been reports of SPQ- from:

• Amsterdam, at one of the major theatres and some of the bridges^[1]
• Antwerp, on the Antwerp City Hall
• Benevento, on manhole covers^[2]
• Bruges
• Brussels, found repeatedly on the Palais de Justice, and over the main stage of La Monnaie/De Munt opera house
• Florence^[2]
• Florianópolis
• London
• Liverpool, on various gold doors in St George's Hall
• Lübeck, on the Holstentor
• Lucerne
• Olomouc
• Palermo
• Siena
• Tivoli
• Terracina
• Verviers, on the Grand Theâtre
• Vienna

The SPQR logo also appears at the base of "The Angel of Independence" statue in Mexico City. Its relevance there is not clear.

[edit] SPQR in popular culture

• In the movie Gladiator, Maximus has SPQR tattooed on his left shoulder.
• In the movie Titus, the radio microphone into which Saturninus speaks has the call letters "S.P.Q.R."
• The experimental band This Heat wrote a song entitled "S.P.Q.R" which appears on their 1981 album Deceit.
• SPQR, in the strategy game Rome: Total War, stands for the only Roman faction that is unplayable by human players, this being the Roman Senate, who are depicted as controlling Rome itself. The player has to choose between the Roman families Brutii, Scipii and Julii.
• In the Italian translation of the Asterix series, the character Obelix uses it as a joke on Rome and Romans, by saying "Sono Pazzi Questi Romani" ("These Romans are crazy").
• Football club AS Roma played with SPQR emblazoned on a special edition of their new 07-08 Season Home Jersey.^[3]
• In 2007, a new Schönherz Cup team was formed with the name S.P.Q.R. Schönherz Cup is a yearly event of the College of Electrical Engineering and Informatics of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics.
• At the theme park Busch Gardens Europe in the state of Virginia, SPQR is displayed on signs at the entrance to the Apollo's Chariot roller coaster. The usage is a nod to the theming of the Festa Italia section of the park.
• The Irish band Primordial included the phrase in the song 'Heathen Tribes' on their 2007 album To The Nameless Dead.
• Track 9 on the album Guden i steinen by Norwegian band Ym-stammen is called "S.P.Q.R.".

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Polybius on the Senate and People (6.16) on www.Perseus.edu
• Lewis & Short dictionary entry for populus on www.Perseus.edu
• Instances of "Roman Senate and People" in www.Perseus.eduaf:SPQR

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