Religion in China
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Religion in China has been characterized by pluralism since the beginning of Chinese history. Temples of many different religions dot China's landscape, particularly those of Taoism, Buddhism, and Chinese folk religion. Mahayana Buddhism remains the largest organized religion in China since its introduction in the 1st century.
The majority of Chinese people follow Buddhism (between 660 million, 50%, and over 1 billion, 80%[1]) and/or Taoism (400 million, 30%[2]). Number of adherents to these religions can be overlaid in percentage due to the fact that some Chinese consider themselves both Buddhist and Taoist. Minority religions are Christianity (between 40 million, 3%[3], and 54 million, 4%[4]), Islam (20 million, 1.5%), Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon, and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism and Falun Gong). According to Adherents.com, in 1998 59% of the Chinese population was irreligious.[5]
The study of religion in China is complicated by several factors. Because many Chinese belief systems have concepts of a sacred and sometimes spiritual natural world yet do not always invoke a concept of personal god (with the exception of Heaven worship, the imperial cult, that was based on serving[6] an omnipotent, just, monotheistic, and supreme being called Shangdi). Chinese religions are often classified as both religions, philosophies, spiritualities and ways of life. Taoism and Buddhism are considered pantheistic and nontheistic, while Chinese folk religion is widely polytheistic.
Independently of their adherence to an organized religion, the most of Chinese base their culture on a background of Chinese folk religion, Confucianism and ancestor worship. These are not organized religions, but practices or thinking systems denoting membership to the Chinese ethnic civilization.
The Chinese religions are family-oriented and do not demand the exclusive adherence of members, unlike many Western religions. Chinese people may visit Buddhist temples while living according to Taoist principles and participating in local ancestor veneration rituals.
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[edit] Cultural background
[edit] Confucianism
The cultural background of Chinese people is deeply influenced by Confucianism (儒学; Rujia). It is a philosophy stressing ethical, moral an social values. Confucian system is sometimes considered the proper culture of the Chinese; consequently, it targates religious tendencies and customs. Confucianism arose during the 5th century BCE from the teachings of Confucius, collected under the name of the Analects. The Han Dynasty eventually made Confucianism the official state culture, along with Taoism which was the official religion.
Confucian social and political system remained established until 1912, when it was rejected by the new Republic of China and subsequently by the People's Republic of China. Since 2004[7] Confucianism is experiencing a great revival in China, as it is supported by the central government. People's Republic of China is establishing institutes for Confucian education all over the world.[8] In April 2007 the headquarter of all Confucius Institutes has been founded in Beijing.[9] China has planned to establish 500 of such institutes by 2010.[10]
[edit] Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion is considered the collection of folkloric beliefs that draws heavily from Chinese mythology. This religious system is practiced by Chinese people as a cultural matter, independently of their adherence to Buddhism or Taoism.
Chinese folk religion is based on the worship of deities, xians, cultural heroes, demigods and supernatural beings (particularly the Chinese dragon) that vary depending on geographical and local conditions. Chinese folk religion is not organized in institutions, has not clergy or formal rituals, but it has its own temples called joss houses or mius. These buildings are popular in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, while in Mainland China the vast majority of them was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution and the following decades, and the few remaining were converted into Buddhist and Taoist temples[11]. In the mainland, Chinese folk religion is practiced privately, and shrines survive as home altars.
[edit] Ancestor worship
Chinese veneration of ancestors (拜祖, baizu; or 敬祖, jingzu) dates back to the prehistory. Chinese culture, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety as a top virtue, and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The veneration of ancestors can even extend to legendary figures or historical, such as the patriarch or founder of one's Chinese surname, virtuous individuals such as Confucius or Guan Yu, or the mythological figures like the Yellow Emperor, supposed as the ancestor of all Chinese people.
The two major festivals involving ancestor veneration are the Qingming Festival and the Double Ninth Festival, but veneration of ancestors is conducted in many other ceremonies, including weddings, funerals, and triad initiations. Worshipers generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.
Whether this act constitutes a form of veneration, or of worship, became part of the Chinese Rites controversy which brought up the debate over whether or not the practice conflicted with the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church.
[edit] Organized religions
[edit] Taoism
Taoism (道教; Daojiao in Chinese) is a religion born in China itself in the 6th century BC and is traditionally traced to the composition of the Tao Te Ching or to the founding of the Way of the Celestial Masters by Zhang Daoling in the 2nd century, although some Taoist schools trace their origin much earlier. Taoist religion builds on earlier concepts found in wisdom texts such as the Tao Te Ching.
This work is attributed to the sage Laozi, a person who subsequently came to be venerated by some as a deity. The theology of Taoism is centered on the Tao (the Way), the essence of all existing things and an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. In 1956 a national organization, the Chinese Taoist Association (with chapters in every province and city) was set up to administrate Taoist activities.
Banned from 1949 to the late 1980s (along with all other religions), Taoism is undergoing a major revival today [12], and it is the spirituality followed by about 30% (400 million) of the total Chinese population. [13] In April 2007 in China took place the International Forum on the Daodejing, during which celebrities and government officials expressed will to support Taoism as one of the foundations of Chinese culture.[14] Chinese Taoist clergy is organizing missionary systems to spread the spirituality around the world.[15]
[edit] Buddhism
Buddhism (called 佛教, Fajiao) was introduced from South Asia and Central Asia during the Han Dynasty, traditionally in the 1st century. It became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, admired by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. It is estimated that in the 9th century Buddhist institutions were the most powerful of China, surpassing the Taoist ones.
This led to the so called Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, which saw Buddhism repressed. Although the persecution was heavy, Buddhism survived and reflourished in the following centuries.
With the rise of People's Republic of China in 1949 Buddhism was banned and many temples and monasteries destroyed. Restrictions lasted until the 1980s. The Chinese Buddhist Association was founded in 1953. In recent times, Buddhism has recovered popularity and it is returned to be the largest organized faith in the country. While estimates of the number of Buddhists in China range widely, Chinese government statistics estimates the number of Buddhists at 100 million.[16]
More recent surveys put the total number of Chinese Buddhists between 660 million (50%) and over 1 billion (80%)[17] thus making China the country with the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. The vast majority of Chinese Buddhists are Mahayana while Tibetans traditionally follow their denomination of Buddhism, small communities of Theravada also exist. It should be noted that many Chinese Mahayana identify themselves as Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.
Buddhism is tacitly supported by the government. In April 2006 China organized the World Buddhist Forum and in 2007, in Changzhou, world's tallest pagoda was built and opened in May.[18][19][20] However, some restrictions of Tibetan Buddhism are due to controversies about its hierarchy, and the issue of the succession of Tenzin Gyatso the current 14th Dalai Lama (who wasn't invited to the World Buddhist Forum). Gyatso - who was not only the spiritual leader, but also the sovereign of Tibet - is in exile, and China is currently intentioned to elect its own 15th Dalai Lama. In August 2007 China has prohibited the reincarnation of Tibetan living buddhas without permission of the governemt, thus limiting the influence of Tenzin Gyatso and new Tibetan Buddhist monks.[21]
[edit] Islam
Islam (called 伊斯兰教, Yisilanjiao) was introduced into China via the Silk Road in the 7th century, other accounts state that some of Muhammad's companions arrived there at AD 650[22] when the Emperor Gaozong of Tang showed significant esteem for Islam and believed that its teachings are compatible with the values espoused by Confucius. Islam was later more substantially spread by merchants and craftsmen as trade routes improved.
During the Yuan Dynasty, many mosques and learning centers were constructed. Several prominent Chinese historical figures are Muslims, such as 20th century general Bai Chongxi and Ming Dynasty fleet admiral Zheng He.
According to the Asia Times, there is a possibility that Islam is the third largest organized faith in the country after Buddhism and Taoism. Although the article notes the difficulty of obtaining reliable data concerning religious adherence, the figures and conclusions cited in the report greatly conflict with other statistical estimations.[23] It is practiced by an estimated 20 million to 30 million people (1.5% to 2% of the total)[24][25], predominantly such minority groups as the Huis, the Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Tatars, Uzbeks, Tajiks, Dongxiangs, Salars and Bonans.[26] These make up large percentages in Ningxia and Xinjiang autonomous regions. In 2006, a record number of Chinese pilgrims departed to Mecca for the hajj, up 40 percent from the previous year.[27]
[edit] Christianity
The first entry of Christianity (called 基督教, Jidujiao) into China was the introduction of Nestorianism spread by Middle Eastern travelers who came to China in AD 635, as documented by the Nestorian Stone in Xi'an. However, recent archaeological discoveries seem to show a spread of Christianity already in the 1st century[28], along with Buddhism.
In 1289, Franciscan friars from Europe initiated mission work in China. This mission collapsed in 1368, as the Ming Dynasty attempted to abolish Christianity in China. The first Jesuit attempt to reach China was made in 1552 by Francis Xavier, but he died the same year on the Chinese island of Shangchuan, without having reached the mainland. In 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission work in China. One of these missionaries was Matteo Ricci. Protestants did not arrive until Robert Morrison of the London Missionary Society began work in 1807 at Macau. Following defeat in the Opium Wars, a series of unequal treaties with the major European powers forced the Qing imperial government to allow unrestricted access to foreign missionaries. The 1800's witnessed the expansion of Christianity beyond the isolated areas of the Treaty Ports by thousands of new missionaries who entered the interior of China.
China's encounter with Christianity had several significant impacts. The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings and the Boxer Rebellion was in part an anti-foreign religion movement. Christians in China established the first clinics and hospitals[29], provided the first training for nurses, opened the first modern schools, worked to abolish practices such as foot binding [30], and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the opium trade[31] and brought treatment to many who were addicted. Some of the early leaders of the Chinese Republic, such as Sun Yat-sen were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings.[32]
Though the official census enumerates 4 million Catholics and 10 million Protestants[33], estimates of Christians in China are difficult to obtain because of the numbers of Christians unwilling to reveal their beliefs, the hostility of the national government towards some Christian sects, and difficulties in obtaining accurate statistics on house churches.Christianity in China is growing in contrast to many Western nations where numbers are in decline[34]. As of 2007, Christianity is flourishing.[35] Studies of the Amity News Service, confirm the official census figures[36], clarifying that their statistics include both registered and underground Christians. However, claims about Christians in China vary. Answering to these claims[37] two surveys were held in October 2007, one by a Protestant missionary corporation, the other one by a Shanghaiist university. They obtained the same results, showing that about 3% to 4% percent of the population[38], roughly between 40 million[39] and 54 million people are Christians.[40][41]
- See also: Protestantism in China, Catholicism in China, Chinese house church, and Persecution of Christians.
[edit] Hinduism
It seems there are small communities of followers of Hinduism (called 印度教, Yindujiao) in China. In October 2007 the Chinese government has invited the BAPS, a Hindu missionary organization, to build the first Hindu temple in China, in the Foshan city.[42] The temple will be built following the style of the Akshardham temple in Gandhinagar.[43] The temple will provide a series of centers for study of Indian culture, Indian languages and Indian music.[44]
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness states it has followers in China.[45]
[edit] Judaism
Judaism (called 犹太教, Yuotaijiao in Chinese) was introduced during the Tang Dynasty (between the 7th and the 10th century) or earlier, by small groups of Jews settled in China. The most prominent early community was at Kaifeng, in Henan province (Kaifeng Jews). In the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Hong Kong and Shanghai during those cities' periods of economic expansion in the first decades of the century, as well as for the purpose of seeking refuge from the Holocaust in Western Europe and from the communist revolution in Russia.
Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, most of whom left after the war, the rest relocating prior to or immediately after the establishment of the People's Republic. Today, the Kaifeng Jewish community is functionally extinct. Many descendants of the Kaifeng community still live among the Chinese population, mostly unaware of their Jewish ancestry. Meanwhile, remnants of the later arrivals maintain communities in Shanghai and Hong Kong. In recent years a community has also developed in Beijing.
More recently, since the late 20th century, along with the study of religion in general, the study of Judaism and Jews in China as an academic subject has begun to blossom.
[edit] Indigenous religions
In China two notable indigenous religions have survived since modern times, they're Bon and Dongbaism.
Bon (called 苯教, Benjiao by the Chinese) is the oldest spiritual tradition of Tibet, dominant before the introduction of Buddhism. Bonpo religion is traditionally considered founded by the mythical figure of Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche. With the spread of Buddhism, Bon incorporated styles, iconography and clergy system of the new religion, whereas remaining a distinguished tradition. Simultaneously, Bonpo elements combined with original Buddhism gave origin to Tibetan Buddhism. Bon is essentially a psychologistic religion.
Dongbaism (東巴教, Dongbajiao in Chinese) is the primary religion of the Nakhi people. About two-thirds of today Nakhis (200.000 on 300.000) are Dongbas. Although it has remained exclusive to the Nakhis, Dongba religion is not considered native by scholars. Deep similarities between Dongba practices and the Bonpo ones seem to proof that Dongbaism arose roughly during the 11th or 12th century. Bonpos are considered to have settled among the Nakhis spreading their religion; Dongbaism eventually originated by the combination of Bon with Nakhi native beliefs. Elements drawn from Taoism are also identifiable. Dongbas worship nature, personified by human-snake-chimera creatures called Shv or Shu.
[edit] New movements
During the centuries, many sect religions emerged in China. Between the 19th and the 20th century some new religious movements gained prominence, especially Xiantianism and Falun Gong. These religions are characterized by syncretic, messianic and millenarian attitudes. All these movements are currently banned in Mainland China due to their eventual involvement in political issues.
Xiantianism (先天道, Xiantiandao) is referred to have roots in the 13th century doctrine of the White Lotus. It was formally founded in the 17th century as a unified religion, but in 1828 it split into many sub-groups. Today, "Xiantianism" or "Way of Former Heaven" is an umbrella term that encompass many religions, namely Ikuantao, Tientism, Miledaism, Society of Goodness, Society of Celestial Virtue, Society of Compassion, Daoyuan and Haizetao. Xiantian religions claimed 5 million adherents before the crackdown in 1949. In 1987 Ikuantao was legalized in Taiwan, and further new sects arose in the following years. Today, Xiantians have gained notable prominence in the country. Ikuantaoists form the third largest religious community in Taiwan, while Tientists form the fifth.
Falun Gong (法轮功) is a mind-body cultivation system related to Buddhism and qigong, with ethic and millenarian aspects. It is sometimes described as a religion, a spirituality or a metaphysical system. It was spread by Li Hongzhi since 1992. A 1998 figure from the Chinese government suggests there were 70 million practitioners in China at that time.[46] On July 20, 1999, the Chinese authorities banned[47] and initiated a crackdown[48] on Falun Gong.
[edit] Faded religions
[edit] Heaven worship
The Heaven worship was the bureaucratic belief system subscribed to by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. It was a panentheistic system, centering on the worship of Tian (the "Heaven") as an omnipotent force. This religious system predated Taoism, Confucian thought and the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity; its dogmas supported the basements of the imperial hierarchy.
It had monotheistic features in that Heaven was seen as an omniscient entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. Heaven as a monotheistic god was variously referred to as Shangdi (literally "Lord Above"). Worship of Heaven included the erection of temples, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Heaven was believed to manifest itself through the powers of the weather and natural disasters. No iconographies were permitted in Heaven worship. Heaven was seen as a judge of humans. Especially evil people were believed to be killed by Heaven through lightning, with their crimes inscribed on their (burnt) spines.
After the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, Heaven monotheism faded in popular belief. However, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the premodern period. These concepts, often influenced heavily by Confucian theory, include the Mandate of Heaven, the Emperor's role as Son of Heaven, and the legitimate overthrow of a dynasty when its "mandate" ended. These structures actually consolidated the authority of the Emperor.
Emperors who favoured Taoism or Buddhism neglecting the worship of Heaven were often seen as anomalous. Elements were also incorporated in Chinese folk religion. Execution by lightning, for example, became one of the roles of the thunder gods. The concept of the almighty Heaven remained in popular expressions. Where an Anglophone would say "Oh my God" or "Thank God", a Chinese person might say "Oh Heaven" ("老天！" or "天哪！") or "Thank the heavens and the earth" ("謝天謝地").
[edit] Manichaeism
Manichaeism (called 摩尼教, Monijiao), an Iranic religion, entered China between the 6th century and the 8th century due to contacts between the Tang Dynasty and states of Central Asia, particularly Tokharistan.[49] In 731 a Manichaean priest was asked by the Chinese Emperor to realize a summary of the religion's teachings. He wrote the Compendium of the Teachings of Mani the Buddha of Light. The Tang government approved Manichaeism to be practiced by foreigners, but prohibited preaching among Chinese people.[49]
A turning point occurred in 762 with the conversion of Bogu Khan of the Uyghurs.[49] Since 755, the Chinese Empire had been weakened by the An Shi Rebellion, and the Uyghurs had become the only fighting force serving the Tang Dynasty. Bogu Khan encouraged Manichaeism to spread in China. Manichaean temples were established in the two capitals, Chang'an and Luoyang, as well as in several other cities in the Northern and Central China.[49]
The decay of Uyghur power in 840 brought to the closure of many Manichaean institutions.[49] Emperor Wuzong of Tang started the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, which was not exclusively against Buddhism but extended to all foreign religions. The religion was severely suppressed, but didn't died out. During the period of the Five Dynasties it re-emerged as a popular underground phenomenon, particularly in Southern China.[49]
In 1120 a rebellion led by Fang Xi was believed to be caused by adherents of underground religious communities, which meeting places were said to host political protests. This event brought to crackdown of unauthorized religious congregations and destruction of scriptures. In 1280 the Mongol rule gave a century freedom to Manichaeism[49], but in 1368 the Ming Dynasty started new persecutions.[49] The religion gradually collapsed, eventually dying out during the following centuries.
[edit] Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism (called 琐罗亚斯德教, Suoluoyasidejiao) expanded in Northern China during the 6th century via the Silk Road. It gained a status of officiality in some Chinese regions. Zoroastrian fire temples have been found in Kaifeng and Zhenjiang. According to some scholars they remained active until the 12th century, when the religion started to fade from Chinese landscape.
[edit] Modern history
The People's Republic of China was established in 1949. Its government is officially atheist, which viewed religion as emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism. Religious belief or practice was banned because it was regarded as backward and superstitious by some of the communist leaders, from Vladimir Lenin to Mao Zedong, who had been critical of religious institutions.
Houses of worship, including pagodas, temples, mosques, and churches, were converted into non-religious buildings for secular use during its early years. The Cultural Revolution led to a policy of elimination of religions; a massive number of places of worship was destroyed.
This policy relaxed considerably in the late 1970s at the end of the Cultural Revolution and more tolerance of religious expression has been permitted since the 1980s. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions. Since the mid-1990s there has been a massive program to rebuild Buddhist and Taoist temples.
The Chinese Communist Party has said that religious belief and membership are incompatible. Party membership is a necessity for many high level careers and posts. That along with other official hostility makes statistical reporting on religious membership difficult. There are five recognized religions by the state, namely Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism.[50]
In recent times, the government has expressed support for Buddhism and Taoism, organizing the World Buddhist Forum in 2006 and the International Forum on the Daodejing in 2007. Government see these religions as integrant part of Chinese culture. In October 2007, the new statute of China cites religion as an important element of citizens' life.[51] Some restriction on religions said to have political agenda (Tibetan Buddhism and ban of Xiantianism and Falun Gong) persist.
[edit] References
- ^ http://www.vipassanafoundation.com/Buddhists.html
- ^ http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=468&Itemid=34
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm
- ^ http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm
- ^ http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_473.html
- ^ Ethel R. Nelson, Richard E. Broadberry, and Ginger Tong Chock. God's Promise to the Chinese. p 8. ISBN 0-937869-01-5.
- ^ http://www.chinanews.cn/culture_education/2007-12-12/41982.html
- ^ http://www.chinanews.cn/culture_education/2007-12-12/41982.html
- ^ http://china.org.cn/english/photo/206586.htm
- ^ http://in.news.yahoo.com/070218/43/6c7xw.html
- ^ As happened to the City God Temple of Shanghai
- ^ http://www.arcworld.org/downloads/SCMP%20Daoism%2030%20April%202007.pdf
- ^ http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=468&Itemid=34
- ^ The Way of Harmony: International Forum on the Daodejing - News
- ^ http://www.arcworld.org/downloads/SCMP%20Daoism%2030%20April%202007.pdf
- ^ US Department of State International Religious Freedom Report 2007[1]
- ^ http://www.vipassanafoundation.com/Buddhists.html
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6610999.stm
- ^ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070501-tallest-pagoda.html
- ^ http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/world/view_article.php?article_id=63479
- ^ http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article2194682.ece
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml
- ^ http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/HI06Ad01.html
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html#People
- ^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90133.htm
- ^ http://www.china.org.cn/e-china/religions/belief.htm
- ^ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-12/28/content_769373.htm
- ^ http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1545760/posts
- ^ Gulick, (1975) pp. 561-562
- ^ Burgess, (1957) pp. 47
- ^ Austin, (2007)
- ^ Soong, (1997) p. 151-178
- ^ http://www.china.org.cn/e-china/religions/belief.htm
- ^ http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5717468/Church-growth-in-China-Century.html
- ^ http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5717468/Church-growth-in-China-Century.html
- ^ http://www.amitynewsservice.org/page.php?page=1151
- ^ http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html#People
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6337627.stm
- ^ http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html#People
- ^ http://www.hindujagruti.org/news/3218.html
- ^ http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070028341&ch=10/5/2007%209:46:00%20AM
- ^ http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070028341&ch=10/5/2007%209:46:00%20AM
- ^ http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=23598&sec=59&con=17
- ^ http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_285.html#1563
- ^ http://english.people.com.cn/special/fagong/1999072200A101.html
- ^ http://web.archive.org/web/20030711022606/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engASA170112000
- ^ a b c d e f g h Sammuel Lieu. Manichaeism in China. The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies.
- ^ http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zjxy/t36492.htm
- ^ http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=26639&sec=36&cont=all
[edit] Further reading
- De Groot, J.J.M. (Jan Jakob Maria), "The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith", Brill Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1892-1910. In six volumes.
- Manchao, Cheng, "The Origin of Chinese Deities", Foreign Languages Press, Beijing, 1995. ISBN 7-119-00030-6
- Paper, Jordan, "The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion", SUNY Press, 2111
- Austin, Alvyn (2007). China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-2975-7.
- Burgess, Alan (1957). The Small Woman. ISBN 1568491840.
- Gulick, Edward V. (1975). Peter Parker and the Opening of China. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1975).
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1929). A History of Christian Missions in China.
- Spence, Jonathan D. (1991). The Search for modern China. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393307808.
- Soong, Irma Tam (1997). Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i. Hawai'i: The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 13.
[edit] See also
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[edit] External links
- Statistics of religions in China by Chinese government
- "Islam in China" by British Photojournalist Sean Gallagher
- Information on the Church in China
- Surveys/analyses of religious freedom in China by Forum 18 News Service
- The Sleeping Giant awakes: China reconsiders the need for spirituality to balance scientific development and consumerism, Science & Theology News
- The American School of Classical Feng Shui
- Taoist Practices
fr:Religions en Chine it:Religioni in Cina pt:Religião na China sv:Kinesisk religion zh:中华人民共和国宗教
