Papal conclave, 1492
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| Image:Ombrellino-keys.svg | |
| Dates | August 6–August 11, 1492 |
| Location | Sistine Chapel, Apostolic Palace, Papal States |
| Dean | Rodrigo Borja |
| Vice Dean | Oliviero Carafa |
| Camerlengo | Raffaele Riario |
| Protodeacon | Francesco Piccolomini |
| Ballots | Pope elected after 4 ballots |
| Elected Pope | Rodrigo Borja (took name Alexander VI) |
The papal conclave of 1492 (August 6 – August 11, 1492) convened after the death of Pope Innocent VIII (July 25, 1492), elected Rodrigo Borja as Pope Alexander VI. The first conclave to be held in the Sistine Chapel, the election is notorious for allegations of simony.
Contents |
[edit] Cardinal electors
Of the twenty-three cardinals participating in the conclave, fourteen had been elevated by Pope Sixtus IV.[1] The Cardinals of Sixtus IV, known as the "Sistine Cardinals" and led by Giuliano della Rovere, had controlled the conclave of 1484, electing one of their own, Giambattista Cibo as Pope Innocent VIII.[2] Since 1431 the composition of the College of Cardinals had been radically transformed, increasing the number of cardinal-nephews (from 3 to 10), crown-cardinals (from 2 to 8), and representatives of powerful Roman noble families (from 2 to 4).[3] With the exception of three curial officials and one pastor, the cardinals were "secularly-minded princes largely unconcerned with the spiritual life of either the Latin church or its members."[3]
At the time of Innocent VIII's death, the names of Cardinals Gherardo and Sanseverino had not been published, thus making them inelegible to participate in the conclave; however, both were published as an act of the College in sede vacante, Gherardo having been pushed by Orsini and Sanseverino by Sforza.[3] Gherardo was assigned the title of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo, which it was believed Innocent VIII had intended for him; Sanseverino was given the poor and undesirable diaconate of San Teodoro to ensure that the future pontiff would confirm his assignment.[3]
According to the account of bishop ambassador Giovanni Andrea Boccaccio, at least seven cardinals considered themselves papabile, having dismantled the furnishings of their palaces as a precaution against the traditional pillaging of the pope-elect's residence by the Roman populace: da Costa, Fregoso, Michiel, Piccolomini, Domenico della Rovere, Savelli, and Zeno.[3]
[edit] Absent Cardinals
There is no evidence that any of the four absent cardinals made an attempt to reach Rome for the conclave.[3]
| Elector | Nationality | Order | Title | Elevated | Elevator | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Luis Juan del Mila y Borja | Spanish | Cardinal-Priest | Ss. IV Coronati, bishop of Lérida | 1456, February 20 published September 17, 1456 | Callixtus III | Archpriest of the Sacred College; De facto retired Cardinal-nephew |
| Pedro González de Mendoza | Spanish | Cardinal-Priest | S. Croce in Gerusalemme, archbishop of Toledo | 1473, May 7 | Sixtus IV | Had not left Iberian Peninsula since elvation Crown cardinal of the Catholic Monarchs |
| André d'Espinay | French | Cardinal-Priest | Ss. Silvestro e Martino ai Monti, archbishop of Bordeaux, and Lyon | 1489, March 9 | Innocent VIII | Crown cardinal of Charles VIII of France |
| Pierre d'Aubusson | French | Cardinal-Deacon | Deacon of S. Adriano | 1489, March 9 | Innocent VIII | Grand Master of Knights Hospitaller Busy defending Rhodes from the Turks |
[edit] Procedures
As dictated by the prescriptions Ubi periculum and Ne Romani, the conclave should have begun on August 4, ten days after the death of Innocent VIII; however, the conclave was delayed to await the slow arrival of the aged Gherardo, bearing a letter from Venice's Council of Ten urging his acceptance into the College.[3] The cardinals had decided as early as their first meeting on July 24 to use the Sistine Chapel for the balloting and assembly of the conclave.[3]
Johann Burchard, the German papal master of ceremonies, who presided over the conclave, as well as the previous one in 1484, kept an extensive diary, noting that each cardinal was provided:[4]
| “ | A table, a chair, a stool. A seat for the dischargement of the stomach. Two urinals, two small napkins for the table of the lord. Twelve little napkins for the same lord and four hand towels. Two little cloths for wiping cups. Carpet. A chest or box for the garments of the lord, his shirts, rochets, towels for wiping the face and a handkerchief. Four boxes of sweets for provisions. One vessel of sugared pine-seeds. Marzipan. Cane sugar. Biscuits. A lump of sugar. A small pair of scales. A hammer. Keys. A spit. A needle case. A writing case with penknife, pen, forceps, reed pens, and pen stand. A quire of paper for writing. Red wax. A water jug. Salt cellar. Knives. Spoons. Forks [...]. | ” |
The Mass of the Holy Spirit (celebrated by Giuliano della Rovere rather than Borja who as Dean would traditionally have been the celebrant)[3] and then a speech by Bernardino Lopez de Carvajal on the "evils afflicting the Church" preceded the beginning of the conclave on August 6, 1492.[5] Carvajal, a Spaniard and the ambassador to Ferdinand and Isabella, as well as Gonzalo Fernandez de Heredia, and Iberian and archbishop of Tarragona in charge of security, were probably chosen by Borja in his capacity as Dean.[3]
The remainder of August 6th was consumed by the drafting and subscription to the conclave capitulation, which—although not extant—is known to have restricted the number of new cardinals which could be created by the new pope.[3]
[edit] Vote count
| Country | Number of Electors |
|---|---|
| Rome, Savona | 4 |
| Genoa, Milan, Naples, Venice | 3 |
| Florence, Portugual, Spain | 1 |
The first ballot ("scrutiny"), held on August 8th, was said to have resulted in nine votes for Carafa, seven for Borja, Costa, and Michiel, and five for Giuliano della Rovere, with Sforza notably receiving zero votes.[6]
The second ballot produced: nine for Carafa, eight for Borja, seven for Michiel, and five for Giuliano della Rovere.[5]
According to the Florentine Ambassador, one of the guards of the conclave, as of August 10th, there had been three unsuccessful ballots, favoring Costa and Carafa,[7] but in no way indicating Borja might be chosen.[8] According to Sigismondo de' Conti, papal secretary and chronicler, the vote was unanimous on the fourth ballot, taken early in the morning on August 11th, although Borja had only 15 votes prior to the accessus;[9] other accounts say Borja received all the votes except for his own, which he gave to Carafa.[8]
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the election of Rodrigo Borja "almost entirely due to" Giambattisti Orsini.[10]
[edit] Allegations of simony
The Venetian envoy to Milan informed his confrère in Ferrara: "that by simony and a thousand villanies and indecencies the papacy has been sold, which is a disgraceful and detestable business," adding that he expected Spain and France to withhold their support from the new pontiff.[8][11] After the conclave, a ubiquitous epigram within Rome was: "Alexander sells the Keys, the Altar, Christ Himself—he has a right to for he bought them."[12]
On August 10th, after the third ballot, Ascanio Sforza allegedly came to believe his own ambitions of being elected pope were impossible and became succeptable to Borja's offer: the office of Vice-Chancellor and the associated Palazzo Borgia, the Castle of Nepi, the bishopric of Erlau (with annual revenue of 10,000 ducats) and other benefices.[13][14] Sforza was also reputed to have received four mule-loads of silver (some sources say gold), which Borja ordered to be delivered immediately after the deal was struck.[11][15] The price of the other Cardinals was as follows: Orsini, the fortified towns of Monticelli and Soriano, the legation of the Marches, and the bishopric of Cartagena (with annual revenue of 5,000 ducats);[16][14] Colonna, the abbey of Subiaco and its environs (with annual revenue of 3,000 ducats);[17][14] Savelli, Civita Castellana and the bishopric of Majorca;[17] Pallavicini, the bishopric of Pampeluna (Pamplona);[17][14] Michiel, the suburban bishopric of Porto;[18][14] Riario, Spanish benefices with annual income of 4,000 ducats and the return of a house in the Piazza Navona (which Sforza had occupied) to the children of Count Girolamo.[14] Sanseverino's compensation included Rodrigo Borgia's house in Milan.[14] Cardinals Sclafenati and Domenico della Rovere were to receive abbacies and/or benefices.[18] Cardinals Andicino della Porta and Conti followed Sforza, whom they had originally supported.[18]
The aforementioned Cardinals plus Borja's own vote numbered 14, one short of the required two-third majority. However, Cardinals Carafa, Costa, Piccolomini, Cibò, and Zeno, followed by Medici, were unwilling to be bribed.[18][11] Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, followed by Basso, was intractably opposed to Borja's election.[18] Thus, the ninety-six year old Gherardo, the Cardinal Patriarch of Venice,[11] who was paid only 5,000 ducats,[19] constituted the deciding vote.[20]
According to Professor Picotti, who extensively researched the conclave and came to the conclusion that simony had occurred, no accounts of papal income and expenditure exist in the registers of Introitus et Exitus for August 1492, and debts from the Apostolic Camera to Cardinals Campofregoso, Domenico della Rovere, Sanseverino, and Orsini appeared soon afterwards.[21] The Spannocchi bank, which housed much of Borja's wealth, was said to have nearly crashed after the conclave due to the velocity of transactions.[9]
Some sources say that Charles VIII of France had bankrolled 200,000 ducats (plus 100,000 ducats from the Doge of Genoa) for the election of Giuliano della Rovere, although several otherwise bribable cardinals were hostile to French interference.[22]
Other historians regard politics as a stronger factor within the conclave than pure simony, with the personal rivalvry between Giuliano della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza (who had met to discuss the upcoming conclave in Castel Gandolfo even before Innocent VII had died[23]) substituting for the ancient struggle between Naples and Milan,[24] with the intractability between the two parties making Borja a viable candidate.[9]
[edit] Aftermath
When Giuliano della Rovere was elected Pope Julius II in 1503, he promulgated a bull annulling any papal election brought about by simony, and defrocking and excommunicating any cardinal who sold his vote. Although the twenty-six day reign of Pope Pius III intervened between Alexander VII and Julius II, the alleged unscrupulousness of the Borgia pope was still firmly in the institutional memory of the Roman Curia. While Cardinal during the reign of Alexander VII, Julius II had been assailed politically and often militarily outside the sturdy wall of his Castle of Ostia.[25]
[edit] References
- Chamberlin, Eric Russell. 2003. The Bad Popes. Barnes & Noble Publishing. ISBN 0880291168.
- Pastor, Ludwig. 1902. The History of Popes. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.
[edit] Notes
- ^ Pastor, Ludwig. 1906. The History of Popes. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd. p. 416.
- ^ Signorotto, Gianvittorio, and Visceglia, Maria Antonietta. 2002. Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492-1700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521641462. p. 17.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Burke-Young, Francis A. 1998. "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church: Papal elections in the Fifteenth Century: The election of Pope Alexander VI (1492)."
- ^ Chamberlin, 2003, p. 169.
- ^ a b Bellonci, Maria. 2003. Lucrezia Borgia. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 1842126164. p. 7.
- ^ Bellonci, 2003, p. 6.
- ^ Pastor, 1902, p. 381.
- ^ a b c Setton, Kenneth Meyer. 1984. The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571: The 13th & 14th Centuries. ISBN 0871691272. p. 433.
- ^ a b c Bellonci, 2003, p. 8.
- ^ Image:Wikisource-logo.svg "Orsini" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
- ^ a b c d Setton, 1984, p. 435.
- ^ Chamberlin, 2003, p. 170.
- ^ Pastor, 1902, p. 382.
- ^ a b c d e f g Setton, 1984, p. 434.
- ^ Chamberlin, 2003, p. 170-171.
- ^ Pastor, 1902, p. 382-383.
- ^ a b c Pastor, 1902, p. 383.
- ^ a b c d e Pastor, 1902, p. 384.
- ^ Chamberlin, 2003, p. 171.
- ^ Pastor, 1902, p. 385.
- ^ Setton, 1984, p. 433-434.
- ^ Chamberlin, 2003, p. 169-170.
- ^ Shaw, Christine. 1993. Julius II: The Warrior Pope. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 063120282X. p. 84.
- ^ Ady, Cecilia M. 1928. "Review of La giovinezza di Leone X." English Historical Review. 43: p. 627.
- ^ Sladen, Douglas Brooke Wheelton, and Bourne, Francis. 1907. The Secrets of the Vatican. Hurst and Blackett Limited. p. 50.
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