Nativity of Jesus

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For images, see Nativity of Jesus in art, and for the decoration, see Nativity Scene.

Nativity story redirects here. For the 2006 film, see The Nativity Story.

The Nativity of Jesus, or simply the Nativity, is the story of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth.

For Christians, the authoritative accounts are those given in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke that form part of the New Testament of the Bible. More elaborate accounts of the events relating to the birth of Jesus have also been preserved, but have not been included in the Christian canon of the Bible. The Gospel of Mark, believed by most critics to be the earliest of the canonical gospels, is silent on the nativity.^[1]

The birth narratives of Matthew and Luke relate that Jesus of Nazareth was the child of Mary, who at the time of his conception was betrothed as the wife of Joseph of the House of David. His conception was miraculous because he was conceived to her by the power of the Holy Spirit, (the divine presence of God) rather than by Joseph, who was to act as his "earthly father." The birth of Jesus was announced by angels to a group of shepherds and by the presence of a new star to a group of wise men.^[2] The gospels indicate that Jesus' birth was the fulfilment of prophecies made by the Prophets of Israel.

The remembrance, representation and re-enactment of the Nativity scene are central to the Christian celebration of Christmas, the name "Christmas" for the festival signifying the Christian belief that Jesus of Nazareth is the "Christ" or Messiah promised in the Old Testament of the Bible. In the Roman Catholic Church, and among other Christian groups, the main religious celebration of Christmas is the Church service at midnight ("Heilige Nacht", "Midnight Mass") or in the morning of "Christmas Day", which is always kept on the 25 December. During the forty days leading up to Christmas, the Eastern Orthodox Church practices the Nativity Fast, while four Sundays before Christmas, the majority of Christian congregations (including the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, many Mainline churches, and Baptists) begin observing the liturgical season of Advent – both are times of spiritual cleansing, recollection and renewal, in order to prepare for the celebration of the birth of Jesus at Christmas.

Many modern scholars consider that the two Gospel accounts appear to present two different and conflicting narratives, and view both stories as "pious fictions".^[3] E. P. Sanders describes them as "the clearest cases of invention in the Gospels".^[4]

Contents 1 Biblical narratives 1.1 Gospel of Luke 1.2 Gospel of Matthew 1.3 Gospel of John 1.4 Relationship between the Gospels 2 Historical Circumstances 2.1 Date of birth 2.2 Location 2.3 Paternity 2.3.1 Role of Joseph 2.4 Visitors 3 Emmanuel 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links 8 Headline text

[edit] Biblical narratives

Major events in Jesus' life in the Gospels

Nativity Baptism Temptation Ministry Commissioning Disciples & Apostles Sermon on the Mount Miracles Rejection Transfiguration Entering Jerusalem Temple Incident Cursing the Fig Tree Giving the Great Commandment Anointing Last Supper Promising a Paraclete Passion Arrest Sanhedrin Trial Before Pilate Crucifixion Entombment Empty Tomb Resurrection appearances Giving the Great Commission Ascension Second Coming Prophecy This box: view • talk • edit

[edit] Gospel of Luke

The Gospel of Luke states that Mary learned from the angel Gabriel that the Holy Spirit would cause her to be with child. Mary pointed out that she was a virgin and the angel responded that "nothing will be impossible with God". "Here am I, the servant of the Lord; let it be with me according to your word," Mary responded (Luke 1:31-38).

At the time that Mary was due to give birth, she and her husband Joseph traveled from their home in Nazareth about 150 kilometres (90 miles) south to Joseph's ancestral home, Bethlehem, in order to register in a census ordered by Emperor Augustus, the Census of Quirinius. Having found no place for themselves in the inn, they lodged in a room where animals were kept. There Mary gave birth to Jesus (Luke 2:1-7).

An angel of the Lord visited the shepherds that were guarding their flocks in fields nearby and brought them the "good news of great joy" that "to you is born this day in the city of David a Saviour, who is the Messiah, the Lord". The angel told them they would find, "a child wrapped in bands of cloth and lying in a manger." A "heavenly host" joined the angel and said, "Glory to God in the highest heaven, and on earth peace among those whom he favors!" (Luke 2:10-14, NRSV). The King James Version (1611) reads, "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men." ^[5] The shepherds hurried to the manger in Bethlehem where they found Mary, Joseph and Jesus. They repeated what they were told by the angel, and then returned to their flocks (Luke 2:16-20).

[edit] Gospel of Matthew

In the Gospel of Matthew, the impending birth is announced to Joseph in a dream, in which he is instructed to name the child Jesus or possibly Emmanuel, meaning God is with us. A star reveals the birth of Jesus to a number of magoi (magi, Greek μάγος, commonly translated as "wise man" but in this context probably meaning "astronomer" or "astrologer"^[6]) who travel to Jerusalem from an unspecified country "in the east":

"In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, 'Where is the child who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising,^[7] and have come to pay him homage.' When King Herod heard this, he was frightened, and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born" (Matthew 2:1-4).

The statement that Herod was "frightened" (Matthew 2:3) by the magi's words implies that Herod did not know of the presence of the star, (often referred to as the Star of Bethlehem), before the magi arrived or was not aware of its significance in heralding the "Messiah".

Herod understood the phrase "King of the Jews" as a reference to the Messiah, since he asked his advisers where the Messiah was to be born. They answered Bethlehem, the birthplace of King David, and quoted the prophet Micah (Matthew 2:4-6).^[8] "Go and search diligently for the child; and when you have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage," a deceitful Herod told the magi. As the magi traveled to Bethlehem, the star "went before" them and led them to a house where they found Jesus. Thus Jesus was not at this time in the stable as described by Luke. He was a παιδίον ("paidion," transl. "child"), not a βρέφος ("brephos," transl. "infant"). But Luke only speaks of shepherds outside of Bethlehem who visit Jesus in the stables, and does not speak of the magi from the east celebrating with him on the day of his birth. The magi presented Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh (Matthew 2:9-11).^[9]

In a dream, the magi received a divine warning of Herod's intent to kill the child, whom he saw as a rival. Consequently, they returned to their own country without telling Herod the result of their mission. An angel told Joseph to flee with his family to Egypt. Meanwhile, Herod ordered that all male children of Bethlehem under the age of 2 be killed, the so-called "Massacre of the Innocents" (Matthew 2:12-16).

After Herod's death, the holy family settled in Nazareth, fulfilling, according to Matthew, a prophecy: "He will be called a Nazorean" (Matthew 2:23). The King James Version of the Gospel reads "He shall be called a Nazarene." This prophecy is possibly a free reading of Isaiah 11:1, with the Hebrew netzer, for "branch," read as Nazōraios (Nazorean) in Greek. Here "Nazorean" means both a resident of Nazareth and a "branch," or descendant (of David).^[10] Another possible interpretation^{[citation needed]} concerning this particular word in Isaiah 11:1 is the emphasis on this branch being different from the main body--as Jesus teachings vary from those of the main religious body.^[11]

[edit] Gospel of John

The Gospel of John 1:1-14 also gives an account of the coming of Jesus, as one who was with God and who was "the Word of God", (ie. God's communication). This passage is not narrative and does not contain the details of Matthew's or Luke's gospels. However, it is closely associated with the Biblical narratives, and it is this reading, rather than a narrative reading, which is set down as part of the formal Catholic and Anglican liturgy as the "Proper Reading for Christmas Day" and as such, is read in thousands of churches across the world on Christmas morning. The final verse is:

“

And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten Son of the Father, full of Grace and truth.[12]

”

[edit] Relationship between the Gospels

Many modern scholars argue that the Gospels present two very different accounts^[13]: the Gospel of Matthew relates the appearance of an angel, in a dream, to Joseph; the wise men from the east; the massacre of the innocents; and the flight to Egypt. The Gospel of Luke mentions none of these but describes the conception and birth of John the Baptist; the appearance of an angel to Mary; the worldwide census; the birth in a manger, and the choir of angels; none of these is mentioned by Matthew.^[14] They also emphasize the apparent contradictions between the accounts, which explain the birth in Bethlehem in different ways (Luke says they lived in Nazareth and only moved to Bethlehem briefly for the census, Matthew implies that they lived in Bethlehem and only moved to Nazareth on their return from Egypt;^[15]) give two different genealogies of Jesus,^[16] and appears to use a contradictory time frame (Mathew's account places the birth during the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4BC, but Luke dates it to the census of Quirinius in 6 AD).^[17]

As a result, many scholars see the nativity stories either as completely fictional accounts^[18], or at least constructed from traditions which predate the Gospels.^[19] Raymond Brown, for instance, who observes that "it is unlikely that either account is completely historical",^[20] suggests that the account in Matthew is based on an earlier narrative patterned on traditions about the birth of Moses^[21].

[edit] Historical Circumstances

[edit] Date of birth

See also: Census of Quirinius, Chronology of Jesus, and Anno Domini

The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus. In Western Christianity, it has been traditionally celebrated on December 25 as Christmas (in the liturgical season of Christmastide), a date that can be traced as early as 330 among Roman Christians. Before then, and still today in Eastern Christianity, Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on January 6/7 (late at night on january 6th) as part of the feast of Theophany,^[22] also known as Epiphany, which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism by John in the Jordan River and possibly additional events in Jesus' life. Some scholars have speculated that the date of the celebration was moved in an attempt to replace the Roman festival of Saturnalia.^[23] Some scholars note that Luke's descriptions of shepherds' activities at the time of Jesus' birth suggest a spring or summer date.^[24] The theory that December 25 was the birthdate of Jesus was popularized by Sextus Julius Africanus in Chronographiai (AD 221).

Matthew places Jesus' birth under the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 B.C. Matthew also recorded that Herod had all the male children in Bethlehem two years old and younger executed (Matthew 2:16, see Slaughter of the Innocents), based on a prophecy relayed to him by the magi that a new King of the Jews had been born in the town. The order's instruction of "two and under", along with the inference that it took Herod time to realize that the magi were not about to deliver the child to him, implies a birth no later than 6-4 B.C. Luke describes the birth as occurring during the census of Quirinius in 6 A. D, described by the historian Josephus. Most scholars consider Luke to be mistaken,^[25] though some writers still attempt to reconcile his account with the details given by Josephus.^[26]

[edit] Location

Both Matthew and Luke stated that Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Matthew 2:1, Luke 2:4). According to Luke, Joseph and Mary had traveled to the town of Joseph’s ancestors, the town of David (Bethlehem), due to the aforementioned census. Luke also stated the Mary gave birth to Jesus in a manger “because there was no place for them in the inn (ἐν τῷ καταλύματι).” The Greek word κατάλυμα (kataluma) may be translated as either “inn” or “guestroom”, and some scholars have speculated that Joseph and Mary may have sought to stay with relatives, rather than in an inn, only to find the house full (whereupon they resorted to the shelter of a room with a manger). The Greek text uses the word κατάλυμα which is traditionally translated as "inn" but the Greek text contains this word on two other occasions (once in Luke 22:11 and the other in Mark 14:14) to describe the place where Jesus will eat the Passover with his disciples: "a large furnished upper story room within a private house". Later Luke 10:34 mentions an actual inn but uses the word πανδοχεῖον (pandocheion) not κατάλυμα indicating he meant different buildings.

Many Christian scholars accept Jesus was placed in a manger, as homes in that period commonly had mangers built inside them for animals kept indoors (a carved stone trough rather than the wooden one often depicted), and that Joseph and Mary stayed in a ground floor room in a private house owned by relatives as the upper rooms normally offered to guests were occupied.^[27] Although in Western art the manger is usually depicted as being in a man-made free standing structure, many biblical scholars conjecture that, as in Byzantine art, the manger was probably positioned in a cave carved in the side of a hill - as this was the typical location of stables in classical Palestine.^{[citation needed]} In the second century, both the Protoevangelium of James and Justin Martyr stated specifically that Jesus had been born in a cave.^[28] The Church of the Nativity, built by St. Helena, contains the cave-manger site traditionally venerated as the birthplace of Jesus. The Greek word used for manger, φάτνη (phatne), is found four times in the Gospel of Luke (and only in Luke): Luke 2:7, Luke 2:12, Luke 2:16, Luke 13:15. The first three accounts are in the Nativity story while the last is in Jesus' words to synagogue leaders: "You hypocrites, does not each of you on the Sabbath untie his ox or his donkey from the stall and lead him away to water him?" Here, the consistency with language would be reason enough to hold to the traditional view: after his birth, Jesus was laid in a feeding trough within a structure set aside for animals. The use of the English word "manger" is primarily sentimental/confessional and is not particularly effective in a contemporary context.

[edit] Paternity

The earliest source on Jesus's paternity (or rather, early beliefs and traditions about his paternity) is the letters of St Paul, written some time between c. 50 and 65 CE. Paul addresses Jesus's paternity only twice, in Galatians 4 and Romans 1. In both cases he says that Jesus was born "under the Law" (i.e., a Jew, and therefore of a Jewish father - Galatians 4:4), of the line of David (which could only be traced through the male line), but "declared to be the Son of God" through his resurrection from the dead (Romans 1:4).

The Gospels are all removed by at least a generation from the time of Jesus. Mark, the earliest of them, makes no mention at all of Jesus's father Joseph, but casts doubt on the idea of descent from David: "How can he [the Messiah] be his [David’s] son?’” (Mark 12:35–37). The famous birth narratives appear only in the later Gospels of Matthew and Luke, and the high amount of supernatural storytelling they contain - appearance of angels, supernatural guiding stars, etc - makes them of little value as factual records.

In first century Judea, betrothal was a binding contract that might take place while the couple, and in particular the girl, was prepubescent. The contract was for life, but under some circumstances could be broken by a formal divorce. After the ceremony of betrothal, the young bride would remain in her father's house for a year or more until she had reached sufficient maturity. At this time the husband would take the bride into his own home, accompanied by public celebration. Mary, although formally betrothed and therefore contracted to Joseph, became pregnant "before they came together", which could be interpreted as either before they had sexual intercourse together or before they lived together as husband and wife.

That Mary was a virgin at the time of the conception of Jesus is indicated by her statement recorded in Luke 1:34, when she responds to the news of the impending birth with the words "How shall this be, as I know not a man?" The theology of most Christian Churches accepts the virgin birth on this statement. Matthew's gospel indicates that Mary and Joseph did not have sex until after Jesus was born, the passage stating that he took her into his home "but knew her not before she had brought forth her first-born son" (Matthew 1:25). The term Immaculate Conception refers not to Jesus' conception but the birth of Mary.

This verse is generally accepted by Protestants as implying only that Mary and Joseph did not have sex until after Jesus was born. Other denominations, in particular the Roman Catholic Church, argue that the passage is less explicit in the Greek and indicates that Joseph never had sex with Mary, supporting the belief in the perpetual virginity of Mary. David Hill, a Presbyterian, acknowledges that the wording does not absolutely deny perpetual virginity, but argues that had been the belief during the 1st century, then Matthew would have stated it. The Genealogy of Jesus as detailed in both Matthew and Luke's Gospels are traced to Joseph, in each case indicating him as a surrogate father. However the genealogy in the oldest surviving copy of the old Syriac version of the Gospel of Matthew - the Sinaitic Palimpsest - is often interpreted as indicating that Joseph was the father of Jesus.

[edit] Role of Joseph

The exact meaning of Matthew's description of Joseph as a "just man" is much discussed; the Greek term is dikaios, and it has variously been translated as just, righteous, upright, and of good character. Most of the ancient commentators of the Bible interpreted it as meaning that Joseph was law abiding, and as such decided to divorce Mary in keeping with Mosaic Law when he found her pregnant by another, but, tempering righteousness by mercy, he intended to keep the situation private. Matthew 1:19

A second view, first put forward by Clement of Alexandria, and held by many modern Christians is that Joseph's righteousness is his mercy itself, with the decision to ensure Mary was not shamed being proof of his righteousness rather than an exception to it. A third view is based on the idea that Joseph didn't yet know the origin of Mary's pregnancy, which is more in keeping with the Gospel of Luke, leading to the view that Joseph's righteousness is pious acceptance of Mary's story.^{[citation needed]}

Joseph's original intent, though, was to divorce Mary once he had discovered her pregnancy, though some scholars and most older translations have expressed this more euphemistically since Joseph, a man having just been described as righteous, undergoing divorce would imply that divorce was righteous. Especially in the nineteenth century a number of scholars^{[citation needed]} tried to read alternate meanings into the term, with one proposal being that it merely meant that the couple would split while legally remaining married. However recent discoveries have found that legal avenues for divorce certainly existed at the time in question. One of the clearest pieces of evidence is a divorce record from 111, entirely coincidentally between a couple named Mary and Joseph, which was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.^{[citation needed]} The Greek word here translated as divorce is aphiemi, and the only other time it appears is in 1Corinthians 7:11 where Paul uses it to describe the legal separation of a man and wife, and thus almost all modern translators today feel that divorce is what is being described, although doctrinal reasons cause some to use other wording.

Rabbinic law^{[citation needed]}from the period allows two different options for divorce that is due to adultery:

• Bring the matter to the village council, which would hold a hearing and, if the allegations were proved, grant a divorce.
• Have the evidence presented and approved by two witnesses who would then certify the divorce (Gundry argues that the witnesses were necessary mainly to prevent a woman denying that the divorce had actually taken place.).

Joseph is explained as choosing to put Mary away privately rather than publicly divorce her, which most scholars believe means that Joseph had taken the second of the two divorce options.

In the first of several dream sequences in Matthew, an angel visits Joseph to dissuade him, and explain what has happened. The angel is described in a manner much more like early Jewish descriptions, as in the Pentateuch, merely as a pure functionary with no individuality, unlike the more esoteric descriptions that arose nearer Matthew's own time, under Hellenic influence, such as described in the Book of Enoch. Joseph carries out the angel's instructions exactly, rather than arguing with them, which appears to be a common theme in the Gospel - rapid and unquestioning obedience is treated by Matthew as an important virtue.

Matthew does not describe how Mary came to be pregnant, which Schweizer thinks implies that Matthew's audience were already well aware of the story of the Virgin Birth - there were several virgin birth stories in the Jewish tradition and so the idea of virgin births was generally accepted by the population. Matthew mentions the paternity of the Holy Ghost very quickly, even before any of the characters in his narrative are aware of this fact, which Brown argues is because Matthew does not want the reader to ever consider alternate scenarios as to how Mary could have become pregnant.

[edit] Visitors

Main article: Biblical magi

The Magi bear gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Though wise men or kings is the traditional understanding, the Bible actually refers to magoi. Three is a traditional number, derived from the three gifts. Furthermore, the Bible describes the men as having arrived about two years after the birth of Jesus to inquire of Herod.

Neither the names of the magi nor their number are specified in the Bible, but – because the gifts described are three in number – a tradition arose that there were three magi: Balthasar, Melchior, and Caspar. Balthasar is a Greek version of the Babylonian name Belshazzar, meaning "May Bel protect his life." This was the name given to Daniel by the chief eunuch of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (Daniel 1:7),^[29] as well as to a king of Babylon (Daniel 5:7). Melchior means "The king is my light" in Aramaic. Caspar is a Latinized version of Gondophares, a Parthian (i.e. Persian) name. In free retellings of the Nativity events, the magi are sometimes called "kings" because of prophecies that kings will pay homage to the Messiah (Isaiah 60:3 and Psalm 72:11).

The men were said to be following a mysterious star, commonly known as the Star of Bethlehem, that had suddenly appeared in the sky, believing it to be the fulfilment of an ancient prophecy of the coming of the Messiah, or king of the Jews.

On the other hand, Luke's account does not mention the Magi, instead having Jesus being visited by local shepherds, who had been informed in the night by an angel (herald) who said "Do not be afraid, for behold, I bring you good news of great joy which will be to all the people, for there is born to you, this day, in the city of David, a Saviour, who is Christ the Lord. This is the sign to you: you will find a baby wrapped in swaddling clothes (strips of cloth), lying in a manger (feeding trough)." After this an innumerable company of angels appeared with the herald saying "Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace, good will toward men." The shepherds went quickly to Bethlehem, finding the sign to be as the angel foretold, and subsequently publicised what they had witnessed throughout the area.

[edit] Emmanuel

Main article: Emmanuel

In Matthew "an angel of the Lord" appears to Mary's betrothed husband Joseph in a dream and tells him: "she will bear a son, and you shall call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins". The text continues with the comment: "All this happened to fulfil what the Lord had spoken by the prophet: 'Behold the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and his name shall be called Emmanuel, which being interpreted is God with us'".^[30]. Some 5-6th century manuscripts of the Gospel according to Matthew read "Isaiah the prophet" instead of merely "the prophet" (e.g. D), but this does not have the support of other important witnesses (see Nestle²⁶).

Rather than using the Masoretic text which forms the basis of most modern Christian Old Testament translations, Matthew's quotation is taken from the Septuagint. The verb кαλεω kaleō (to call) is used by both Isaiah and Gabriel; but whilst the former employs the third person plural (they shall call), the latter has the second person singular you shall call. Gabriel himself therefore is not applying Isaiah's prophecy to Joseph, but his purpose is to invite him to assume legal paternity of the son to be born of Mary by naming him. It is the following comment that explains Mary's conception by the Holy Spirit, Joseph's vocation as the child's legal father, and the child's own vocation as the Saviour of his people as indicated by the name Jesus, in the light of Isaiah's prophecy that henceforth "God is with us". Howewer, this understanding of this passage tends to be regarded as Christian apologetics, because almost all Jewish sources are certain that "Immanuel" was intended as a name, not a mere title.^{[citation needed]}

Scholars have other concerns with Matthew's reference to Isaiah. France,^{[citation needed]} for instance, believes that it is far more likely that Isaiah is referring to the more immediate future, particularly as the text can be considered to be past tense - implying that the saviour in question was already conceived when Isaiah was writing. Matthew also appears to have adjusted the meaning slightly, but in a significant way -although Matthew uses the Greek term parthenos, usually translated virgin, Isaiah uses the Hebrew word almah, which more accurately translates as young woman.^[31]

The purpose of the quotation is better understood by looking at the context in which it is used in Isaiah. Isaiah is in the process of promising that God can save Israel from the immediate threat of the Assyrians, but that if the Jews continue to sin, the Assyrian empire will be the instrument of God's vengeance. Hence, in the eyes of scholars such as Carter, Matthew is using the situation as an allegory for the time in which he was writing; if followed, Immanuel would lead to salvation from the Roman empire, but if rebuffed, Rome will be the instrument of punishment against the Jewish people.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] See also

• Nativity of Jesus in art,
• Adoration of the Shepherds
• Adoration of the Magi
• Biblical Magi
• Nativity scene
• Nativity play

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Albright, W.F. and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." The Anchor Bible Series. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
• Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977.
• Calkins, Robert G. Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.
• Carter, Warren. Matthew and Empire. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2001.
• France, R.T. The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
• Gundry, Robert H. Matthew a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.
• Gundry, Robert H. "Salvation in Matthew." Society of Biblical Literature - 2000 Seminar Papers. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000.
• Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981
• Jones, Alexander. The Gospel According to St. Matthew. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1965.
• Levine, Amy-Jill. "Matthew." Women's Bible Commentary. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
• Schaberg, Jane. Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28) Sheffield Academic Press (March 1995) ISBN 1-85075-533-7
• Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975
• Vermes, Geza "The Nativity: History and Legend". Penguin (2006) ISBN 0-14-102446-1

[edit] External links

• Icons of the Nativity (mostly Russian)
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus: Legends Concerning His Birth
• Bernard Orchard, The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph, Part 1; Part 2
• Review of The Nativity: History and Legend by Geza Vermes, reviewed by Peter Ackroyd in The Times - December 23, 2006.
• Live Nativity in Spain

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[edit] Headline text

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