London
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| London | |
| Greater London | |
| The Canary Wharf skyscrapers in the Isle Of Dogs. | |
| London shown within England | |
| Coordinates: | |
|---|---|
| Sovereign state | United Kingdom |
| Constituent country | England |
| Region | London |
| Districts | City and 32 boroughs |
| Settled by Romans | as Londinium c. AD 50 |
| Government | |
| - Regional authority | Greater London Authority |
| - Regional assembly | London Assembly |
| - Mayor | Ken Livingstone |
| - HQ | City Hall |
| - UK Parliament - London Assembly - European Parliament | 74 constituencies 14 constituencies London constituency |
| Area | |
| - Greater London | 609 sq mi (1,577.3 km²) |
| Elevation [5] | 79 ft (24 m) |
| Population (2006 est.)[1], [2][3], [4] | |
| - Greater London | 7,512,400 |
| - Density | 12,331/sq mi (4,761/km²) |
| - Urban | 8,278,251 |
| - Metro | 12-14 million |
| - Demonym | Londoner |
| - Ethnicity (2001 Census) |
59.8% White British 11.4% Other White 12.1% Asian or British Asian 10.1% Black or Black British 3.2% Mixed Race 2.7% Chinese or Other Ethnic Group |
| Time zone | GMT (UTC0) |
| - Summer (DST) | BST (UTC+1) |
| Post code | Various |
| Website: www.london.gov.uk | |
London (pronunciation ; IPA /ˈlʌndən/) is the capital and largest urban area of England and the United Kingdom. At its core, the ancient City of London, to which the name historically belongs, still retains its limited mediaeval boundaries; but since at least the 19th century the name "London" has also referred to the whole metropolis which has developed around it.[6] Today the bulk of this conurbation forms the London region of England[7] and the Greater London administrative area,[8] with its own elected mayor and assembly.[9]
An important settlement for two millennia, London's history goes back to its founding by the Romans. Since its settlement, London has been the centre of many important movements and phenomena throughout history such as the English Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, and the Gothic Revival. In light of this, the city has become one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world which has increased over the years due to the city's economic growth.[10] London boasts four World Heritage Sites, including the Palace of Westminster, the Tower of London, and the historic settlement of Greenwich. It is one of the world's leading business, financial and cultural centres,[11] and its influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion and the arts all contribute to its status as a major global city.[12]
London has an official population of 7,512,400 (as of mid-2006) within the boundaries of Greater London[1] and is the most populous municipality in the European Union. The urban area of London extends beyond the limits of Greater London and has a population of 8,278,251 (as of 2001).[2] The metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of between 12 and 14 million.[3][4] London's diverse population draws from a wide range of peoples, cultures, and religions, and over 300 different languages are spoken within the city.[13] It is an international transport hub, with five major international airports serving the area and a large port. It serves as the largest aviation hub in the world,[14] and the multi-terminal Heathrow Airport carries more international passengers than any other airport in the world.[15]
Contents |
[edit] Geography
[edit] Scope
London can be defined in a number of different ways. At London's core is the small, ancient City of London which is commonly known as 'the City' or 'Square Mile'. London's metropolitan area grew considerably during the Victorian era and again during the Interwar period, but expansion halted in the 1940s because of World War II and Green Belt legislation, and the area has been largely static since.[16] The London region of England, also commonly known as Greater London, is the area administered by the Greater London Authority.[7] The urban sprawl of the conurbation—or Greater London Urban Area—covers a roughly similar area, with a slightly larger population. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt.[17]
Forty percent of Greater London is covered by the London postal district, within which 'LONDON' forms part of the postal address.[18] The London telephone area code covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included. The area within the orbital M25 motorway is sometimes used to define the "London area"[19] and the Greater London boundary has been aligned to it in places.[20] Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London. Informally, the city is split into North, South, East, West and often also Central London.
The Metropolitan Police District, city-wide local government area and London transport area have varied over time, but currently broadly coincide with the Greater London boundary.[21] The Romans may have marked the centre of Londinium with the London Stone, still visible on Cannon Street.[22] The coordinates of the nominal centre of London (traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross, near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall) are approximately . Trafalgar Square has also become a central point for celebrations and protests.[23]
[edit] Status
Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have City status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are ceremonial counties.[24] The current area of Greater London was historically part of the counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.[25] Unlike most capital cities, London's status as the capital of the UK has never been granted or confirmed officially—by statute or in written form.[26] Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.[27]
[edit] Topography
Greater London covers an area of 609 square miles (1,579 km²), making it the 37th largest urban area in the world.[28] Its primary geographical feature is the Thames, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills such as Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. These hills presented no significant obstacle to the growth of London from its origins as a port on the north side of the river, and therefore London is roughly circular.
The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their current width.[29] Since the Victorian era It has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.[30] The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound.[31] In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2030, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.[32]
[edit] Climate
| Weather averages for London | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average high °C (°F) | 7.9 (46) | 8.2 (47) | 10.9 (52) | 13.3 (56) | 17.2 (63) | 20.2 (68) | 22.8 (73) | 22.6 (73) | 19.3 (67) | 15.2 (59) | 10.9 (52) | 8.8 (48) | 14.8 (59) |
| Average low °C (°F) | 2.4 (36) | 2.2 (36) | 3.8 (39) | 5.2 (41) | 8.0 (46) | 11.1 (52) | 13.6 (56) | 13.3 (56) | 10.9 (52) | 8.0 (46) | 4.8 (41) | 3.3 (38) | 7.2 (45) |
| Precipitation mm (inch) | 51.9 (2) | 34.0 (1.3) | 42.0 (1.7) | 45.2 (1.8) | 47.2 (1.9) | 53.0 (2.1) | 38.3 (1.5) | 47.3 (1.9) | 56.9 (2.2) | 61.5 (2.4) | 52.3 (2.1) | 54.0 (2.1) | 583.6 (23) |
| Source: Met Office[33] 14 August 2007 | |||||||||||||
| Climate chart for London | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
51.9
7.9
2.4
|
34.0
8.2
2.2
|
42.0
10.9
3.8
|
45.2
13.3
5.2
|
47.2
17.2
8.0
|
53.0
20.2
11.1
|
38.3
22.8
13.6
|
47.3
22.6
13.3
|
56.9
19.3
10.9
|
61.5
15.2
8.0
|
52.3
10.9
4.8
|
54.0
8.8
3.3
|
| temperatures in °C • precipitation totals in mm source: Met Office[34] | |||||||||||
London has a temperate marine climate, like much of the British Isles, with regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year—unlike the rest of the UK and even the nearby coast. The warmest month is July, with an average temperature range at Greenwich of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C (56.5 to 73.0 °F). Record high temperatures of up to 38.1 °C (101 °F) were recorded in different parts of London on 10 August 2003.[35] The coolest month is January, averaging 2.4 °C to 7.9 °C (35.6 to 46.2 °F). Average annual precipitation is 583.6 mm (22.98 in), with February on average the driest month.[36] Snow is relatively uncommon, particularly because heat from the urban area can make London up to 5 °C (9 °F) hotter than the surrounding areas in winter. Light snowfall, however, is generally seen a few times every year. London is in USDA Hardiness zone 9, and AHS Heat Zone 2.[37]
[edit] Districts
- See also: List of places in London, Central London, Inner London, and Outer London
London's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names (e.g. Bloomsbury, Knightsbridge, Mayfair, Whitechapel, Fitzrovia). These are either informal designations, or reflect the names of superseded parishes and city wards. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a neighbourhood with its own distinctive character, but often with no modern official boundaries. Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.
London is one of the world's three largest financial centres (alongside New York and Tokyo) with a dominant role in several international financial markets, including cross-border bank lending, international bond issuance and trading, foreign-exchange trading, over-the-counter derivatives, fund management and foreign equities trading.[38] It also has the world's largest insurance market, the leading exchange for dealing in non-precious metals, the largest spot gold and gold lending markets, the largest ship broking market, and more foreign banks and investment houses than any other centre.[38] The City has its own governance and boundaries, giving it a status as the only completely autonomous local authority in London.[39] London's new financial and commercial hub is the Docklands area to the east of the City, dominated by the Canary Wharf complex. Other businesses locate in the City of Westminster, the home of the UK's national government and the famous Westminster Abbey.
The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, with locations such as Oxford Street, Leicester Square, Covent Garden and Piccadilly Circus acting as tourist magnets.[40] The West London area is known for fashionable and expensive residential areas such as Notting Hill, Knightsbridge and Chelsea—where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.[41] The average price for all properties in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is £894,000 with similar average outlay in most of Central London.[42]
The eastern side of London contains the East End and East London. The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.[43] The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which is being developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics.[43]
| <imagemap>Image:LondonNumbered.png
poly 187 132 189 138 203 142 205 135 201 130 194 131 City of London poly 154 121 142 125 154 146 163 146 167 155 179 155 183 141 186 141 186 133 179 134 167 120 City of Westminster poly 135 127 145 129 154 147 166 142 168 156 156 161 136 145 Kensington and Chelsea poly 123 123 134 125 139 147 155 163 155 172 141 172 126 158 120 149 Hammersmith and Fulham poly 157 164 167 158 181 158 174 170 176 189 174 205 155 205 148 193 124 196 117 176 132 171 150 174 Wandsworth poly 183 141 170 174 179 192 171 210 181 211 204 204 195 182 197 173 190 141 Lambeth poly 194 139 207 144 219 139 227 141 227 151 218 152 222 180 214 182 205 201 194 184 200 171 193 161 197 150 193 147 Southwark poly 203 126 204 122 228 109 241 135 239 154 231 154 231 140 226 137 203 140 Tower Hamlets poly 199 127 195 123 200 109 192 96 194 89 207 89 229 103 228 109 203 117 Hackney poly 174 93 174 105 186 129 194 128 194 119 199 109 185 92 Islington poly 157 91 172 91 172 101 186 129 180 136 167 121 150 119 138 105 Camden poly 109 69 120 83 120 94 126 94 147 118 134 124 120 120 109 124 99 124 82 105 87 84 Brent poly 122 125 124 141 116 150 102 149 71 151 64 156 49 149 62 127 43 121 65 107 75 105 89 113 99 126 Ealing poly 25 182 36 205 56 208 69 195 61 190 63 183 84 179 102 159 110 167 116 167 124 156 124 151 73 153 67 159 49 153 45 172 36 185 Hounslow poly 128 156 136 165 123 174 127 192 108 207 97 198 91 229 59 215 59 210 70 190 66 189 66 184 84 186 101 163 114 174 Richmond upon Thames poly 90 279 93 234 99 205 109 210 120 200 129 232 125 238 Kingston poly 122 199 148 190 173 206 180 211 180 225 139 235 132 234 Merton poly 129 236 132 271 167 279 187 262 180 231 Sutton poly 188 203 183 224 190 259 168 285 188 305 243 273 227 232 206 208 Croydon poly 202 204 235 236 251 298 291 299 318 213 278 197 257 189 258 200 236 209 225 202 Bromley poly 259 195 233 209 229 201 207 198 223 180 218 164 218 156 227 153 233 165 251 165 245 173 Lewisham poly 242 140 252 147 272 146 283 133 298 133 298 161 281 164 280 172 278 190 272 199 248 176 252 165 237 163 234 154 240 152 Greenwich poly 301 132 318 135 326 152 342 152 315 194 315 210 280 196 283 167 300 162 Bexley poly 306 50 308 91 322 93 328 102 315 132 322 138 324 149 341 149 395 109 360 58 346 44 Havering poly 272 111 275 122 286 131 311 132 327 102 320 95 305 93 308 71 297 79 300 93 287 107 Barking and Dagenham poly 249 48 281 58 302 49 306 65 297 77 297 93 286 106 270 107 261 96 261 102 250 102 243 74 249 61 242 54 Redbridge poly 230 108 259 104 264 102 271 120 283 131 272 142 250 144 241 140 Newham poly 231 105 218 100 210 87 231 34 251 47 241 52 246 61 241 72 246 102 Waltham Forest poly 209 88 218 64 173 65 157 90 171 94 180 87 190 94 Haringey poly 150 22 175 47 171 62 218 62 234 12 163 3 Enfield poly 147 21 174 47 167 69 146 101 123 94 119 80 93 44 Barnet poly 47 65 60 107 81 106 112 72 89 41 Harrow poly 4 50 2 173 28 185 46 172 48 152 62 126 42 121 58 109 44 63 Hillingdon </imagemap> |
[edit] Architecture
- See also: Architecture in London and List of tallest structures in London
London is too large to be overwhelmingly characterised by any particular architectural style, having accumulated its buildings over a long period of time and drawn on an inexhaustible range of influences. It is, however, mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings.[44] Many grand houses and public buildings (such as the National Gallery) are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, except for a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. A majority of buildings in London date from the Edwardian or Victorian periods.[44] The disused (but soon to be rejuvenated) 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St Pancras and Paddington (at least internally).[45]
The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in inner London and lower densities in the suburbs. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is achieved with medium-rise and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers such as the famous "Gherkin", Tower 42 and One Canada Square are usually found in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape, the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross, and the Great Court of the British Museum. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, located by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now used as an entertainment venue known as The O2 Arena.
In recent years, the development of tall buildings has been encouraged in the London Plan, which will lead to the erection of new skyscrapers over the next few years as London goes through a high-rise boom, particularly in the City of London and Canary Wharf.[46] The 72-storey, 1017-foot (310 m) "Shard London Bridge" by London Bridge station, the 945-foot (288 m) Bishopsgate Tower and around 30 other skyscrapers over 500 feet (150 m) are either proposed or approved and could transform the city's skyline.
A great many monuments pay homage to people and events in the city. The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally-recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of the centre.
[edit] Environment
Often called "The Green City," London has a number of open spaces.[47] The largest of these in the central area are the Royal Parks of Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens at the western edge of central London and Regent's Park on the northern edge. This park is located near the tourist attractions of Baker Street, where the fictional Sherlock Holmes lived, and Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Closer to central London are the smaller Royal Parks of Green Park and St. James's Park. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts.
A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south-east, Bushy Park and Richmond Park to the south-west and Victoria Park, East London to the east. Primrose Hill to the north of Regent's Park is a popular spot to view the city skyline. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 791-acre (3.2 km²) Hampstead Heath of North London. This incorporates Kenwood House, the former stately home and a popular location in the summer months where classical music concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks. In the extreme South East of Greater London, the London Boroughs of Bexley and Bromley are noted for their open spaces and extensive wooded areas.
[edit] History
[edit] Etymology
The etymology of London remains unclear. The earliest mention of the city's toponym can be attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae. The name is described as originating from King Lud in which he had allegedly taken over the city and named it after himself to Kaerlud. This was then eventually slurred into Kaerludein and finally London. Although some sources support this theory,[48] Geoffrey's work is largely based on Celtic folklore and it is believed that he was trying to balance historical writings in order to give pre-eminence to Roman, Saxon, and Norman versions of history.[49]
Several other explanations have been proposed by linguists throughout history. Many propose that the name comes from Welsh or Brythonic meaning "city on the lake" or "fortress on the lake".[50][51][52][53] Other theories propose the name to mean "precinct of the fortress",[54] "city on the hill",[55] "city of the Moon",[56], or "city on the grove"[57] Another possible explanation is that the area of London was previously settled by Belgae who named their outposts after townships in Belgium. Some of these Belgic toponyms have been attributed to the namesake of London including Lime, Douvrend, and Londinières.[58] A fanciful theory suggests that the Anglo-Saxons were descendants of the Tribe of Dan. When inhabiting in the area, it is possible that they would have named their settlement lan-dan, meaning "place of Dan" in Hebrew.[59]
Richard Coates, a linguistics professor now at the University of the West of England suggested in 1998 that the name derives from the pre-Celtic *plowonida, which roughly means "a river too wide to ford". He suggested that when a settlement was founded, the inhabitants added the suffix -on or -onjon to toponyms. Proto-Indo-European *p was regularly lost in proto-Celtic, and through linguistic change, the name developed from Plowonidonjon to Lundonjon, then contracted to Lundein or Lundyn, and finally latinised to Londinium via the Romans.[60]
[edit] Early London
|
Image:Westminster Abbey - West Door.jpg Westminster Abbey is one of London's oldest and most important buildings |
Although there is some evidence of scattered Brython settlement in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans in AD 43 as Londinium, following the Roman conquest of Britain. The first London lasted for just seventeen years. Around AD 61, the Iceni tribe of Celts led by Queen Boudica stormed London, burning it to the ground. The next, heavily-planned incarnation of the city prospered and superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in AD 100. At its height in the 2nd century AD, Roman London had a population of around 60,000. However, by the 3rd century AD, the city started a slow decline due to trouble in the Roman Empire, and by the 5th century AD, it was largely abandoned.[61]
By 600 AD, the Anglo-Saxons had created a new settlement called Lundenwic about 1 km upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden.[62] There was probably a harbour at the mouth of the River Fleet for fishing and trading, and this trading grew until disaster struck in 851 AD, when the city's defences were overcome by a massive Viking raid and it was razed to the ground.[62] A Viking occupation twenty years later was short-lived, and Alfred the Great, the new King of England, established peace and moved the settlement within the defensive walls of the old Roman city (then called Lundenburgh). The original city became Ealdwic ("old city"), a name surviving to the present day as Aldwych.
Subsequently, under the control of various English kings, London once again prospered as an international trading centre and political arena. However, Viking raids began again in the late 10th century, and reached a head in 1013 when they besieged the city under Danish King Canute and forced English King Ethelred the Unready to flee.[62] In a retaliatory attack, Ethelred's army achieved victory by pulling down London Bridge with the Danish garrison on top, and English control was re-established.
Canute took control of the English throne in 1017, controlling the city and country until 1042, when his death resulted in a reversion to Anglo-Saxon control under his pious step-son Edward the Confessor, who re-founded Westminster Abbey and the adjacent Palace of Westminster.[62] By this time, London had become the largest and most prosperous city in England, although the official seat of government was still at Winchester.[62]
[edit] Norman and mediaeval London
- See also: Fortifications of London
Following a victory at the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror, the then Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England in the newly-finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William granted the citizens of London special privileges, while building a castle in the south-east corner of the city to keep them under control. This castle was expanded by later kings and is now known as the Tower of London, serving first as a royal residence and later as a prison.
In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall proved the basis of a new Palace of Westminster, the prime royal residence throughout the Middle Ages. Westminster became the seat of the royal court and government (persisting until the present day), while its distinct neighbour, the City of London, was a centre of trade and commerce and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. Eventually, the adjacent cities grew together and formed the basis of modern central London, superseding Winchester as capital of England in the 12th century.
London grew in wealth and population during the Middle Ages. In 1100 its population was around 18,000, by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.[61] However disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population.[61] Apart from the invasion of London during the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, London remained relatively untouched by the various civil wars during the Middle Ages, such as the first and second Barons' Wars and the Wars of the Roses.
After the successful defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, political stability in England allowed London to grow further. In 1603, James VI of Scotland came to the throne of England, essentially uniting the two countries. His enactment of harsh anti-Catholic laws made him unpopular, and an assassination attempt was made on 5 November 1605—the famous Gunpowder Plot.[62]
Plague caused extensive problems for London in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague in 1665–1666. This was the last major outbreak in Europe, possibly thanks to the disastrous fire of 1666. The Great Fire of London broke out in the original City and quickly swept through London's wooden buildings, destroying large swathes of the city. Rebuilding took over ten years.[62]
[edit] Rise of modern London
Following London's growth in the 18th century, it became the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925.[63] This growth was aided from 1836 by London's first railways, which put countryside towns within easy reach of the city. The rail network expanded very rapidly, and caused these places to grow while London itself expanded into surrounding fields, merging with neighbouring settlements such as Kensington. Rising traffic congestion on city centre roads led to the creation of the world's first metro system—the London Underground—in 1863, driving further expansion and urbanisation.[64] Because of this rapid growth, London became one of the first cities in human history to reach a population of one million, and was the first ever to surpass five million.
London's local government system struggled to cope with the rapid growth, especially in providing the city with adequate infrastructure. Between 1855 and 1889, the Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion. It was then replaced by the County of London, overseen by the London County Council, London's first elected city-wide administration.
The Blitz and other bombing by the German Luftwaffe during World War II killed over 30,000 Londoners[65] and flattened large tracts of housing and other buildings across London. The rebuilding during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was characterised by a wide range of architectural styles and has resulted in a lack of architectural unity that has become part of London's character. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area outside the County of London's borders. The expanded area was called Greater London and was administered by the Greater London Council.
In the decades following World War II, large-scale immigration from Commonwealth countries and beyond transformed London into one of the most racially and culturally diverse cities in Europe. Integration of the new immigrants was not always smooth, with major race riots in Notting Hill and Brixton, but was certainly smoother than in other English regions and largely lacking in widespread support for far right organisations, unlike its European or American contemporaries.
An economic revival from the 1980s onwards re-established London's position as a pre-eminent international centre. However, as the seat of government and the most important city in the UK, it has been subjected to bouts of terrorism. Provisional Irish Republican Army bombers sought to pressure the government into negotiations over Northern Ireland, frequently disrupting city activities with bomb threats—some of which were carried out—until their 1997 cease-fire. More recently, a series of coordinated bomb attacks were carried out by Islamic extremist suicide bombers on the public transport network on 7 July 2005—just 24 hours after London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics.
[edit] Government
- See also: List of heads of London government
[edit] Local government
The administration of London takes place in two tiers—a city-wide, strategic tier and a local tier. City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.[62] The GLA consists of two elected parts; the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, who scrutinise the Mayor's decisions and can accept or reject his budget proposals each year. The GLA is a recent organisation, having been set up in 2000 to replace the similar Greater London Council (GLC) which had been abolished in 1986.[62] The headquarters of the GLA and the Mayor of London is at City Hall. The Mayor of London is Ken Livingstone. The 33 local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation.[62] They are responsible for local services not overseen by the GLA, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection.
[edit] National government
London is the home of the Government of the United Kingdom which is located around the Houses of Parliament in Westminster. Many government departments are located close to Parliament, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street.
The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright[66]) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British "three-tier" model. Most countries in Europe and the Commonwealth have similarly organised parliaments with a largely ceremonial head of state who formally opens and closes parliament, a large elected lower house and a smaller, upper house.
London is represented in the national Parliament by 74 Members of Parliament (MPs) who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies.[67] For a list of London constituencies, see List of Parliamentary constituencies in Greater London. Of these 74 MPs, 44 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, 8 are Liberal Democrats and one is from the RESPECT party.
[edit] Economy
- Further information: Economy of the United Kingdom, Economy of London, Media in London and Tourism in London
London is a major centre for international business and commerce and is the leader of the three "command centres" for the world economy (along with New York City and Tokyo).[68] London is the world's second largest financial centre after New York and has the 6th largest city economy in the world after Tokyo, New York, Los Angeles, Chicago and Paris.[69] As Europe's second largest city economy, year-by-year London generates approximately 20% of the UK's GDP[70] (or $446 billion in 2005); while the economy of the London metropolitan area (the largest in Europe)[71] generates approximately 30% of UK's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion in 2005.)[72]
London shifted to a mostly service-based economy earlier than other European cities, particularly following World War II. London's success is as a service industry and business centre.[73]
This can be attributed to factors such as English being the lingua franca, its former position as the capital of the British Empire, close relationship with the U.S. and various countries in Asia.[73] Other factors include English law being the most important and most used contract law in international business and the multi-cultural infrastructure.[73] Government policies such as low taxes, particularly for foreigners (non-UK domiciled residents do not get taxed on their foreign earnings), a business friendly environment, good transport infrastructure, particularly its aviation industry; and a deregulated economy with little intervention by the government have all contributed to London's economy becoming more service based.[73] Over 85 percent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in service industries. Another half a million employees resident in Greater London work in manufacturing and construction, almost equally divided between both.[74] There has been a significant fall in the number of people working in manufacturing industries in London over the last three decades, largely as a result of competition from lower cost regions but also as a consequence of technology and process improvements.[75] Even still, there are more than 15,000 manufacturing businesses in London such as clothing, printing, fabricated metal, furniture and wood/products and food and drink.[75] There is also strong growth in the recycling/environmental sector.[75] A strong manufacturing base still thrives in London because of its geographic location and access to huge markets, its large science and knowledge base, its physical assets, its diversity and its role as a centre of design and creative industries.[75]
London's largest industry remains finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments.[76] Over 300,000 people are employed in financial services in London. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. More funds are invested in the City of London than in the next top ten European cities combined, and more international telephone calls are made to and from London than any other point on the planet.[77] The City is the largest financial and business centre in Europe and, has recently begun to once more overtake New York City, partly due to strict accounting following the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and a tightening of market regulations in the United States.[78] The Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg has said that New York City risks losing its title of world financial capital to London because of Britain's more easy going regulatory, legal and immigration systems.
London is home to banks, brokers, insurers and legal and accounting firms. A second, smaller financial district is developing at Canary Wharf to the east of the City which includes the global headquarters of HSBC, Reuters, Barclays and the Magic Circle, which includes Clifford Chance, the largest law firm in the world. London handled 31% of global currency transactions in 2005—an average daily turnover of US$753 billion—with more US dollars traded in London than New York, and more euros traded than in every other city in Europe combined.[79][80]
More than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies are head quartered in central London. Over 70% of the FTSE 100 are located within London's metropolitan area, and 75% of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London.
Along with professional services, media companies are concentrated in London (see Media in London) and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.[81] The BBC is a key employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers are edited in London, having traditionally been associated with Fleet Street in the City, they are now primarily based around Canary Wharf. Soho is the centre of London's post-production industry.
Tourism is one of London's prime industries and employed the equivalent of 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003,[82] while annual expenditure by tourists is around £15 billion.[83] London is a popular destination for tourists, attracting 27 million overnight-stay visitors every year, second only to Paris.[84]
From being the largest port in the world, the Port of London is now only the third-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 50 million tonnes of cargo each year.[85] Most of this actually passes through Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.
[edit] Demographics
With increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was the most populated city in the world until overtaken by New York in 1925. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939. There were an estimated 7,512,400 official residents in Greater London as of mid-2006.[1] However, London's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to 8,278,251 people in 2001,[2] while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition of that area.[86] According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe.
| Country of Birth | Population (2001) |
|---|---|
| Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom | 5,230,155 |
