Laozi

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Taoist Texts Tao Te Ching · Zhuangzi Daozang

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Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade-Giles: Lao tzu; also Lao Tse, Laotze, Lao Zi, and other variations) was a philosopher of ancient China and an important figure in Taoism (also called Daoism). Laozi literally means "Old Master" and is generally considered an honorific. Taishang Laojun is a title for Laozi in the Taoist religion, which refers to him as "One of the Three Pure Ones". According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC. Historians contend that Laozi actually lived in the 4th century BC, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period, that he is a synthesis of multiple historical figures or that he is a mythical figure.^[1] Laozi was credited with writing the central Taoist work the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), which was originally known simply by his name.

Contents 1 Biography 2 Names 3 Tao Te Ching 4 Taoism 5 Influence 6 Footnotes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

[edit] Biography

There are many popular accounts of Laozi's life, though facts and myths are impossible to separate regarding him. He is traditionally regarded as an older contemporary of Confucius, but modern scholarship places him centuries later or questions if he ever existed as an individual. Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Dao De Jing, though its authorship has been debated throughout history.^[2][3][4]

An early account of his life was the biography by Sima Qian which seemed incoherent to some scholars but can not be disproved.^[5][6]

In legends, he was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. It is said that he stayed in the womb and matured for sixty-two years. He was born when his mother leaned against a plum tree. He emerged a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, which are a sign of wisdom and long life.^[7][8]

According to popular biographies, he worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Chou. This allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. Laozi never opened a formal school. Nonetheless, he attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are numerous variations of a story depicting Confucius consulting Laozi about rituals.^[9][10]

Laozi is said to have married and had a son named Tsung, who was a celebrated soldier. A large number of people trace their lineage back to Laozi, as the T'ang Dynasty did. Many, or all, of the lineages may be inaccurate. However, they are a testament to the impact of Laozi on Chinese culture.^[11]

Traditional accounts state that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of the city and noted the kingdom's decline. At the age of 160, he ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier. At the western gate of the city, or kingdom, he was recognized by a guard. The sentry asked the old master to produce a record of his wisdom. The resulting book is said to be the Tao Te Ching. In some versions of the tale, the sentry is so touched by the work that he leaves with Laozi to never be seen again. Some legends elaborate further that the "Old Master" was the teacher of the Buddha, or the Buddha himself.^[12][13]

[edit] Names

Laozi is an honorific title. Lao means "venerable" or "old". Zi, or tzu, means "master". Zi was used in ancient China like a social prefix, indicating "Master", or "Sir". In popular biographies, Laozi's given name was Er, his surname was Li and his courtesy name was Boyang. Dan is a posthumous name given to Laozi.^[14][15][16]

During the Tang Dynasty, he was honoured as an ancestor of the dynasty after Taoists drew a connection between the dynasty's family name of Li and Laozi's bearing of the same name. He was granted the title Taishang xuanyuan huangdi, meaning Supreme Mysterious and Primordial Emperor. Xuanyuan and Huangdi are also, respectively, the personal and proper names of the Yellow Emperor.^[17][18][19]

[edit] Tao Te Ching

See also: Tao Te Ching, Tao, and Wu wei

Laozi's work, the Tao Te Ching, is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese philosophy. It is his magnum opus, covering large areas of philosophy from individual spirituality and inter-personal dynamics to political techniques. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm.

The Tao Te Ching, often called simply the Laozi after its reputed author, emphasizes the Dao. In the text, it is the source, and ideal, of all existence. It is unseen, but not transcendent, being the root of all things. According to the Tao Te Ching, humans have no special place within the Dao, being one of many things. People have desires and free will, able to alter their own nature. This leads to many acting "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Dao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Dao.^[20] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed, Taoism viewing them as inherently biased and artificial. Paradoxes are widely used to sharpen the point.^[21]

Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It is not unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po), bear a religious context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.^[22]

Wu wei, literally "non-action", is a concept that helps explain ziran, or harmony with the Dao. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as the "sitting in oblivion" found in the Zhuangzi. Laozi used the term broadly, often in contrast to selfish action. Simplicity and humility are seen as key virtues. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. The concept of wu wei is very complex. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and ambition of all sorts originates from the same source.^[23]

According to esoteric adherents, the book contains specific instructions for Taoist adepts relating to qigong meditations, and in veiled preachings the way to revert to the primordial state.^[24] This interpretation supports the view Taoism is a religion addressing the quest of immortality.^[25][26]

[edit] Taoism

See also: Taoism

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism. As a figure, he is intimately connected with the Tao Te Ching and "primordial", or "original", Taoism. Popular ("religious") Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities. ^[27][28]

The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Taoism took root, Laozi was recognized as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Dao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Master, the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later mature Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of Dao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations", or taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism also holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the Tao Te Ching, but rather traveled to India to reveal the Dao.^[29]

[edit] Influence

Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower, had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture. Zhuangzi is a central authority regarding eremitism, a particular variation of monasticism sacrificing social aspects for religious aspects of life. Zhuangzi considered eremitism the highest ideal, if properly understood.^[30]

Scholars such as Aat Vervoom have postulated that Zhuangzi advocated a hermit immersed in society. This view of eremitism holds that seclusion is hiding anonymously in society. To a Zhuangzi hermit, being unknown and drifting freely is a state of mind. This reading is based on the "inner chapters" of Zhuangzi.^[31]

Scholars such as James Bellamy hold that this could be true and has been interpreted similarly at various points in Chinese history. However, the "outer chapters" of Zhuangzi have historically played a pivotal role in the advocacy of reclusion. While some scholars state that Laozi was the central figure of Han Dynasty eremitism, historical texts do not seem to support that position.^[32]

Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak.^[33]

The economist Murray N. Rothbard suggests that Laozi was the first libertarian, likening Laozi's ideas on government to F.A. Hayek's theory of spontaneous order.^[34][35] Similarly, the Cato Institute's David Boaz includes passages from the Tao Te Ching in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader.^[36] Philosopher Roderick Long, however, argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers.^[37]

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] References

• Bellamy, James A.B. Some Proposed Emendations to the Text of the Koran, The Journal of the American Oriental Society 113.4 (1993), citing work by Aat Vervoorn

• Biran, Michal ; Amitai, Reuven. Mongols, Turks, And Others: Eurasian Nomads And The Sedentary World (Brill's Inner Asian Library). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14096-4. 

• Boaz, David (1998). The libertarian reader: classic and contemporary readings from Lao-tzu to Milton Friedman. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-84767-1. 

• Brooks, Phyllis; Robinet, Isabelle (1997). Taoism: growth of a religion. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2839-9. 

• Brown, Calvin S.; Hornstein, Lillian Herlands. The Reader's Companion to World Literature. Signet Classics. ISBN 0-451-52841-7. 

• Creel, Herrlee G.. What Is Taoism?: and Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-12047-3. 

• Fowler, Jeaneane. An Introduction To The Philosophy And Religion Of Taoism: Pathways To Immortality. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1-84519-085-8. 

• Kohn, Livia. Daoism Handbook (Handbook of Oriental Studies / Handbuch der Orientalisk - Part 4: China, 14). Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11208-1. 

• Kramer, Kenneth (1986). World scriptures: an introduction to comparative religions. New York, NY: Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-2781-4. 

• Long, Roderick T. Austro-Libertarian Themes in Early Confucianism, The Journal of Libertarian Studies Vol XVII No 3 (Summer 2003), pp. 35-62. [1]PDF (129 KiB)

• Luo, Jing (2004). Over a cup of tea: an introduction to Chinese life and culture. Washington, D.C: University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2937-7. 

• Maspero, Henri (1981). Taoism and Chinese religion. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 0-87023-308-4. 

• Morgan, Diane. The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 1-58063-197-5. 

• Roberts, Moss. Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24221-1. 

• Rothbard, Murray N. The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition, Ludwig von Mises Institute (2005).[2]

• Rothbard, Murray N. Concepts in the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Towards Laissez Faire, The Journal of Libertarian Studies Vol IX No 2 (Fall 1990), pp. 43-67.[3]PDF (1.20 MiB)

• Simpkins, Annellen M.; Simpkins, C. Alexander (1999). Taoism: a guide to living in the balance. Boston: Tuttle Pub. ISBN 0-8048-3173-4. 

• Van Norden, Bryan W.; Ivanhoe, Philip J.. Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. Indianapolis, Ind: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87220-780-3. 

[edit] Further reading

• Bodde, Derk; Feng, Youlan (1983). A history of Chinese philosophy. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02021-3. 

• Henricks, Robert G.. Lao Tzu: Te-Tao Ching - A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts (Classics of Ancient China). [New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-37099-6. 

• Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0689-1. 

• Waley, Arthur. The Way and Its Power: Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought (UNESCO collection of representative works). New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-5085-3. 

[edit] External links

• Article by Bing YeYoung "The Shamanic Origins of Laozi and Confucius"
• A reconstructed portrait of Laozi, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
• Works by Lao Zi at Project Gutenberg

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