Kannada literature

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Kannada literature refers to the body literature written in the Kannada language, a language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka. It boasts of a rich and ancient body of literature, spanning fifteen hundred years^[1] covering medieval socio-religious developments such as Jainism (puranas), Virashiavism (Vachana), and Vaishnavism (Haridasa Sahitya).^[2][3] A fourth type of literature is that bearing on secular subjects.^[4] Evidence from edicts during the time of Ashoka the Great suggest that the Kannada script and its literature was derived from Buddhist literature,^[5] prompting some historians claim that a Buddhist era in Kannada literature may have existed prior to the Jain period.^[6] The earliest available literary work, Kavirajamarga, a writing on rhetoric and poetics has been dated to 850 CE.^[7]

Medieval Jain writers wrote about Jain Tirthankars and other personages important to the Jain religion. The Virashiva writers accounted for devotees of Shiva, the twenty five forms of Shiva and expositions of the shatsthala and Ekottarasatasthala while the Vaishnava writers wrote on the epics, Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Vedanta and other subjects bearing on Vaishnava puranic stories.^[4] Available literature among secular subjects are writings on grammar, logic, philosophy, poetry, prosidy, drama, rhetoric, lexicon, medecine, local history, biography, veterinary sicence, mathematics, cookery, astrology, meteorology and erotics.^[8] Of the various metres used to write in Kannada, the tripadi (three line verse), shatpadi (six line verse) and ragale (lyrical compositions) and akkara are indegenous to Kannada language.^[9]

Modern Kannada literature has been the most successful among contemporary Indian vernacular literatures, having been awarded Jnanpith awards seven times.^[10] The Sahitya Academy award, the highest award given by the Government of India has been conferred fifty times upon Kannada writers since its inception in 1954.^[11] The history of Kannada literature is usually studied under three phases: Ancient, medieval and modern Kannada.^[12]

Contents 1 Early literature 2 Medieval literature 3 Middle Kannada (naDugannaDa) 3.1 Vachanas 3.2 Kumara Vyasa 3.3 Bhakti 4 Modern Kannada (hosagannaDa) 4.1 Navodaya (New birth) 4.2 Navya (New/Modernist) 4.3 Navyottara (Postmodernist) 5 Awards 6 Reaching people 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

[edit] Early literature

The earliest example of full length Kannada writing can be found in the Halmidi inscription dated 450 CE^[13][14] The earliest available record of Kannada poetry in tripadi metre (three line) are the Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 CE, indicating the verse form of writing had come into vogue.^[15] Coins with Kannada legends began to appear from the early 5th century rule of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi.^[16][17] The earliest available literature in Kannada is the Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics written in 850 CE. While some historians credit the Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha I as the author, a view that the book may have been co-authored by Srivijaya, a poet at the kings court, is also widely held.^[7][6][18] The work is a treatise on Kannada poetry, the Kannada language and Kannada speaking people in general.^[19] References are made in Kavirajamarga to earlier writers such as Vimala (Vimalachandra), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu and 5th - 6th century King Durvinita as writers of prose; Srivijaya, Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirthi (court poet of Pulakesi II) and Lokapala as writers of poetry.^[19][20] The types of compositions in Kannada that existed prior to Kavirajamarga are mentioned in it. These compositions were the Chattana and the Beddande, writings in which are considered extinct.^[21]

Apart from those mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, early Kannada writers frequently mention three poets; Samantabhadra from about 2nd century CE, Kavi Parameshthi assigned to 3rd - 4th century CE and Pujyapada of about 5th century CE as being eminent among their predecessors.^[22] While no Kannada works of these writers have been specifically mentioned, given the frequency and uniformity with which they are mentioned by later Kannada writers, it is probable that they wrote in Kannada.^[22] However, other Kannada writers of the early medieval period are known. Their works are known and referenced by later writers but are now considered extinct. These writers are Syamakundacharya (650 CE) who wrote Prabhrita and Srivaradhadeva, also called Tumubuluracharya (650 CE) who wrote the Chudamani (Crest Jewel), a 96,000 verse commentary on logic (Tattvartha-mahashastra).^[23][24][25] Other sources propose the date of Chudamani to the 6th century or earlier.^[26][27] Bhattakalanka, a 17th century grammarian, wrote of the Chudamini being a milestone which demonstrated that Kannada was well suited for scientific works.^[28]

Gajashtaka, a writing on elephant management in a hundred verses was authored by the King Shivamara II around 800 CE but is now considered extinct.^[29][30] Around 900 CE, Gunavarma I wrote the Sudraka and the Harivamsa, both now considered extinct. He is known to have been patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II. In Sudraka, he has favourably compared his patron to King Sudraka of ancient times.^[30][31] Sri Vijaya, court poet of Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha I wrote the Chandraprabha-purana in early 9th century.^[32] A prosody called Guna-gankiyam has been referenced in a Tamil work called Yapparungalakkarigai by Amritasagara and has been dated to the middle of 9th century.^[33] Bhattakalanka in his works also quotes Gunanandi (900 CE) as an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose. A contemporary of Amoghavarsha I was the Digambara Jain poet Asaga (or Asoka), who wrote the Karnatakumarasambhava Kavya and other writings which have been praised by later day poets such as Jayakirthi, but none of which are available today.^[34]

[edit] Medieval literature

See also: Medieval Kannada literature, Rashtrakuta literature, Western Chalukya literature, Hoysala literature, Western Ganga literature, and Kalachuri

The medieval period covering the periods between 9th and 13th centuries produced, broadly speaking, writers of the Jain, Virashaiva, Vaishnava and secular traditions. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, from earliest known writings to those of 12th century, though a few works by Virashaivas are availabe. The 13th century to 15th century period saw the emergence of numerous Virashaiva and some Vaishnava writers with a proportional decline in Jain literary works. Thereafter, the literary tradition has been dominated by Virashaiva and Vaishnava writers.^[35] Popular metres from the 9th century onwards are the champu-kavyas or just champu used commonly by Jain writers (poems in verse of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose),^[36] vachana (Virashaiva poetic prose in simple and lucid Kannada from 12th century),^[35] sangatya (sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument and introduced in 1232 by Sisumanayana),^[37] shatpadi,^[38] ragale, tripadi,^[9] kavya (a poem in classical style).^[39] and akkara metres.^[40]

It was during the reign of the Rashtrakuta Empire that Kannada literature came into its own and produced many famous writers under royal patronage.^[41] The earliest extant prose work in Kannada, written in purva halekannada (pre-old Kannada) is Vaddaradhane (Worship of elders, 900) by Shivakotiacharya.^[42] The writing contains nineteen stories, mostly borrowed from the Sanskrit writing Brihatkatha-Kosha and is about Jain tenets and describes issues such as rebirth, Karma, plight of humans on earth, social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstitions and condition of women in society. This is followed by the Jain writers who heralded the age of Kannada classics; Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna. Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers, became famous for Adipurana (941). Written in champu style, it is the life history of the first Jain thirtankara Rishabhadeva. Pampa's other notable work was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (or Pampa Bharata, 941), the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata. The story differs from other earlier versions of the epic in that, Arjuna (and not the Pandava brothers) is the hero and Draupadi is only Arjuna's wife.^[42][43]

Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III of the imperial Rashtrakutas is famed for his description of the life of the 16th Jain tirthankara Shantinatha in his writing entitled Santipurana and others writings. He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit.^[44][45][46] Ranna, who came from a family of bangle sellers was the court poet of Western Chalukya Kings Tailapa II and King Satyasraya and was patronised by a devout Jain lady called Attimabbe.^[47][48] He is known for his writings Ajitha purana (993) which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankar and Sahasa Bhima Vijaya (also called Gada Yudda or conflict of clubs, 982) which describes the conflict of Pandava Bhima and Kaurava Duryodhana in the epic Mahabharata.^[49] He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by his patron King Satyasraya.^[50] Among grammarians, Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of Chalukya King Jagadhekamalla II made significant contributions.^[51][52] His works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among other writings, his Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric and Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar (1145) are important.^[53] A unique and native form of poetic literature called Vachana developed during this time, as a result of the development of a new religious faith called Lingayatism. Basavanna (or Basava, 1160), the prime minister of southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded the inspiration for this movement.^[54] These vacahanas were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to god in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu are the best known among more than two hundred vachanakaras (vachana writers), including thirty women poets.^[55][56]

In the 12th-13th century, the Hoysala court produced a flourish of Kannada literature, with such noted scholars as Janna, Harihara, Rudrabhatta, Raghavanga and others.^[57] In 1209, the Jain scholar Janna wrote among other classics, Yashodharacharite, the story of a king who intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys, the king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice.^[58][59] In honour of this work, Janna received the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II.^[60] Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well known Brahminical writer whose patron was Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II.^[61] Based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in the champu style relating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura. Harihara (or Harisvara), who came from a family of accountants (Karnikas) was a Virashaiva writer and the patron of King Narasimha I. He wrote the Girijakalyana in the old Jain champu style which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva and Parvati in ten sections.^[62][63] He was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition and credited with more than one hundred ragales poems in praise of Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva).^[64] His nephew, Raghavanka (1165), was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra kavya which is considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar.^[65][66]

[edit] Middle Kannada (naDugannaDa)

The Middle Kannada period gave birth to several genres in Kannada literature, with new forms of composition coming into use, including Ragale (a form of blank verse) and meters like Sangatya and Desi. The works of this period are based on Jain, Hindu principles.

Two of the early writers (13th century) of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka, trailblazers in their own right. Harihara established the Ragale form of composition, and most of his works are based on the Shaiva and Veerashaiva traditions.

Raghavanka popularized the Shatpadi (six-lined stanza) meter through his six works, the most famous being Harishchandra Charitre, based on the life of the Hindu mythological character Harishchandra. The work is noted for its intense attention to human ideals. Harishchandra Charitre is a "Darshana Kavya". Ranganna described in detail the Raghavanka style in his book Shaili. He also wrote Siddharama Charitha and Somanatha Charitha. Siddharama Charitha describes the story of Siddharama and his accomplishments in building a sacred pond and a siva temple at Sonnalige.

A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna, who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works, Yashodhara Charite and Ananthanatha Purana. A seminal work on Kannada grammar from the same period is Shabda Mani Darpana by Keshi Raja.

[edit] Vachanas

Kannada had poetry similar to haiku in the twelfth century. This form of poetry, called vachanas, were three liners which were pithy comments on that period's social, religious and economic conditions. More importantly, they hold a mirror to the seed of a social revolution, which caused a radical re-examination of the ideas of caste, creed and religion. One of the important ideas coming out of this revolution was the view that "Work is worship" and a path to spirituality.

Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basaveshvara (1131-1167 CE), Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi, the first woman-writer in Kannada.

[edit] Kumara Vyasa

Arguably, Kumara Vyasa has been the most famous and most influential Kannada writer of all time. His lifetime work, the Karnata Bharata KathaManjari, is a sublime adaptation of the first ten Parvas (chapters) of the Mahabharata. A devotee of Krishna, Kumara Vyasa ends his epic with the passing of Krishna in the tenth chapter of the Mahabharata. The work is easily the most celebrated in Kannada literature. Its fame arises out of the fact that it has appealed to people of all strata of education and intellect right up to the present day. The work is entirely composed in the Bhamini Shatpadi meter, a form of six lined stanza. The range of human emotions that Kumara Vyasa explores and the versatility of his vocabulary are extensive. The work is particularly known for its use of sophisticated metaphors, earning Kumara Vyasa the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti (Emperor of the Land of Metaphors).

[edit] Bhakti

Bhakti literature is the literature composed by the Dasas or saints, around fifteenth century, singing the glory of God through poems. These poems called Padas were usually of ten to twenty lines. They expressed the desire of the Bhakta or devotee to be one with God. This form of poetry was highly amenable to musical composition and exposition. This music evolved into the highly sophisticated and codified Carnatic music.

The Haridasas spread the message of peace, love and bhakti in their Dasa Sahitya, which are also popularly known as Devaranamas. Important writers of the Bhakti genre are Purandara Dasa (1494-1564) and Kanaka Dasa.

[edit] Modern Kannada (hosagannaDa)

This form of literature began in the late nineteenth century and continues till date. This period saw the emergence of literary figures like Kuvempu, D. R. Bendre and U. R. Ananthamurthy among others. Though this period is mostly dominated by male writers, female writers like Anasuya Shankar (Triveni) and M. K. Indira were also popular. This form of literature is further divided into three distinct sub-forms, Navodaya, Navya and Navyottara.

[edit] Navodaya (New birth)

Navodaya literally means a new birth. This indeed was the reincarnation of Kannada literature in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, after a period of dormancy in the face of British occupation of India. This period saw greats like Srikanthaiah, Kuvempu, Bendre, Shivaram Karanth, Betgeri Krishnasharma. This genre was highly influenced by Romantic English Poetry and Greek theater. It was Srikanthaiah who started this movement of sorts with his translation of a few critically acclaimed English poems of the Romantic period]]. Many educated Kannadigas, especially those who were in the teaching profession, realised that they needed to express themselves in their mother tongue and started writing in Kannada.

Kuvempu is a case in point who was convinced by his professor (of British origin) that he should write in his mother tongue. Kuvempu went on to become a Rashtrakavi (national poet). His love of nature, realisation of the greatness of man's spirit and the vision to see the blend of nature and God made him more than Kannada's Wordsworth. His most famous work is the Sri Ramayana Darshanam, based on the Hindu epic Ramayana.

Another interesting case is that of Shivaram Karanth who was a man of great intellect, rock-solid convictions and a profound social sense. His powerful social novels include Marali Mannige ("Back to the Soil") and Mukajjiya Kanasugalu ("A Dumb Granny's Dreams").

Famous poets of the period: Kuvempu, Srikanthaiah, D R Bendre, Pu Ti Narasimhachar, Betgeri Krishnasharma(Anandakanda), K S Narasimha Swamy.

Famous novelists of the period: Shivaram Karanth, Masti Venkatesha Iyengar, Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar, S. L. Bhairappa.

Famous playwrights of the period: T P Kailasam.

[edit] Navya (New/Modernist)

Indian independence in 1947 brought with it the promises of freedom and a new genre sprouted in Kannada poetry. The torchbearer of this tradition was Gopalakrishna Adiga. The Navya poets wrote for and like disillusioned intellectuals. The sophistication in the use of language and the importance of technique to poetry reached new heights in this genre.

Famous writers of the period : U R Ananthamurthy, V.K.Gokak, Girish Karnad, K P Poornachandra Tejaswi, P Lankesh

[edit] Navyottara (Postmodernist)

Kannada literature in the last fifty years has been closely related to social aspects. The oppressions of the caste system gave rise to the Bandaaya and Dalita genres of poetry. Feminist movements in Indian society gave rise to the Streevaadi (Feminist) genre of poetry. Short stories have been very popular in the twentieth century. Bhavageete (expressionist poetry) is a popular form of poetry in the twentieth century.

For more on Kannada literature, go to http://www.kannadasaahithya.com (Both in Kannada Unicode and non-Unicode versions are available along with few translations in to English)

[edit] Awards

The fact that holds testament to the greatness of Kannada literature is that it's writers have won seven Jnanpith awards, the highest for any Indian language. They are Kuvempu, Karantha, Bendre,Masti, Gokak, Anantamurthy and Karnad, As of August 2004, a total of forty-six Kannada writers have received the Sahitya Akademi award.

[edit] Reaching people

The popularity of literature is gauged in terms of the response that the educated and interested elite give. But the real popularity of poetry is when common people sing it. Popular appeal is not very easy to achieve for any form of poetry; especially when audiences are not kept in mind. Kannada poetry has a few instances of such mass popularity. Kumaravyasa's epic retelling of the Mahabharata is recited in homes even today. Bhavageete (literally "emotion poetry") has popularized many a Kannada poems and has people humming them.

[edit] See also

• Karnataka literature
• Kannada poetry
• Kannada language
• Kannada script
• Karnataka

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Rice, E.P. [1921] (1982). Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600630. 
• Rice, B.L. [1897] (2001). Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0977-8. 
• Ramesh, K.V. [1984] (1984). Chalukyas of Vatapi. New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. ISBN 3987-10333. 
• George M. Moraes (1931), The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 1990 ISBN 81-206-0595-0
• Suryanath U. Kamat, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
• K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), ISBN 019560686-8
• R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras,1988 ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
• Warder, A.K. [1988] (1988). Indian Kavya Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120804503. 
• Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian, P.N., T.K., N. [2003] (2003). History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part I. New Delhi: Chand publications. ISBN 81-219-0153-7. 
• Iyer, Panchapakesa A.S. [2006] (2006). Karnataka Sangeeta Sastra. Chennai: Zion Printers. 
• Rao, Madhusudana C.R.. History of Haridasas. Haridasas of Karnataka. Haridasa@dvaita.net. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
• Kamath, Jyotsna Dr.. Kannada Literature. History of Kannada literature. Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved on 2006-12-31.
• Various authors [1988] (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature-vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-1194-7. 
• Adiga, Malini [2006] (2006). The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the early medieval period, AD 400-1030. Chennai: Orient Longman. ISBN 81 250 2912 5. 

[edit] External links

• Online community for Kannada literary activities
• Online reference source for Kannada literature
• Comprehensive list of Kannada writers and information about them
• History of Kannada Literature
• History of Kannada Literature
• Photo Gallery of Kannada Writers
• Indian Sahitya Akademi Award Winners in Kannada
• Jnanapeeth Awardees in India

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