Hakka

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Hakka
Chinese: 客家
Kejia (Hakka): hag2 ga24
Literal meaning: guest families
Hakka
客家
Total population

estimated 30 - 45 million worldwide

Regions with significant populations
Jiangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand
Language(s)
Hakka + language(s) of their country of residence
Religion(s)
Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Traditional Chinese religion. Small but significant Christian population.
Related ethnic groups
Other Han Chinese, She people, Vietnamese people
Image:China-Hukka.png
Henan, Shanxi, Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces

The Hakka (Mandarin: Kèjīa) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people who live predominantly in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Fujian in China. Their ancestors were often said to be from Northern China or Central China centuries ago. It is still a contested issue where the Hakka originated. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various nations throughout the world. The Hakka have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: In particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders, not surprising as Hakkas as a people are well-travelled[citation needed] inside and outside of China, and have a pan-Chinese view[citation needed] rather than the regionalist views of the regional warlords of the Chinese Warlord period.

Hakkas are most commonly found in the southern Chinese provinces, but may also be found in the northern provinces; for example there are television news programs read in Hakka in Xi'an (Shaanxi). The presence of Hakkas is pan-China.

Contents

[edit] Migrations and group identification

The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).

Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the Qing Dynasty. These migrants did not want to reveal where they were from as under Chinese Laws, a crime of treason committed by one person is punishible by death upon the clan of that person up to nine generations removed. As the locals did not know where the migrants were from, they were referred to as 'guest families'.

During the reign of Emperor Qing Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the danger posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given money to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地) of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥) in the Pearl Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different peoples speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakka. This arose because the Hakkas became a lot more successful than the Puntis, who were jealous of the latter's success[original research?], in a declining economy.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several peoples speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other (typical of human behaviour in a human society).

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, as well as in the northern provinces such as Shanxi, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.

Although different in some social custom and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population (which in most cases had several 'local' tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side, that were not mutually intelligible; so having another tongue such as Hakka was not a problem), the Hakka are not considered a separate ethnic group by the Chinese people: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Some local peoples thought that the Hakka were not Chinese at all; but due to common ancestry, are traced in clan genealogies, Hakka descendants have been shown to be as[citation needed] Han Chinese as their neighbouring clans. In fact, the Hakka are no more non-Han than are any other southern Han populations.[citation needed] Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties.

With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous peoples, and between the Punti and Hakka. A recent study showed that there is genetic diversity in the general Han Chinese population.[citation needed] This suggests that the southward migration of people is borne out by these DNA studies, consistent with genealogical data.[citation needed] Further, two main groups of modern Han Chinese are observed: a northerly Han group with genetic affinity with northerly Mongoloid peoples, and a southerly Han group which have genetic affinity with the Gin Vietnamese. This finding is consistent with the migrations experienced during the history of the Hakka, from the north to the south of China. Even though this study is not a direct study of Hakka ancestry using DNA data, it does show that all modern southern Chinese have non-Han genotypes[citation needed], due to a history of intermarriage with indigenous aboriginal peoples in the places in which they came to settle.

The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys (本地妹) then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations[citation needed].

[edit] Social and cultural influences

With limited prospects in agriculture, Hakka men have turned -- more often than have other Chinese[citation needed] -- toward careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education and have performed well in Imperial examinations. In fact there was a saying that every county in every province of China had a Hakka government official; the Hakkas had thus became the official class of Imperial China.[citation needed]

Hakka society show a patriarchal hierarchy, as any other Han Chinese population; the fundamental unit of the family is conducted in line with a Confucian ethic. The working ability of women, often in the undertaking of agrarian chores, as with any other peasant farming population of the time, complemented the studies or military activities of their men in periods of disruption. The Hakkas did not practice foot-binding, which they saw as pointless and degrading towards daughters and women. In Hakka society, women are equal to men, for without women there will be no men. This characteristic of the Hakka people has been noted prior to late migrations in the 19th century.[citation needed]

Due to their agrarian lifestyle (this appears to contradict the point made 2 paragraphs above, about "limited prospects in agriculture"), in any case about 95% of Chinese people back then were in agriculture), the Hakka have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (See Hakka cuisine).

During the Qing Dynasty, it was said that some Hakkas used their feet to pull out weeds in rice paddies because they did not want to kneel and crawl on the land of Manchus[citation needed].

[edit] Hakkas in China

Image:Meizhou map2005.jpg
Meizhou Prefecture (in yellow) in Guangdong Province, where Xingning and Meixian are located

[edit] Hakkas in Guangdong

The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋, wéilóngwū or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (Chinese: 四角樓, sìjǐaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu).

[edit] Hakkas in Fujian

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

(see Hakka architecture)

[edit] Hakkas and martial arts

Hakkas also developed a system of martial arts called Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist), and which lead to the development of Southern Praying Mantis.

(see Hakka Kuen)

[edit] Hakkas in Taiwan

In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the third largest population group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.

Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei and Kaohsiung.

[edit] Hakkas in Hong Kong

[edit] Historical background

In contemporary society, the Hakka people in Hong Kong have been identified primarily through their concentration and population in the villages and small towns in the New Territories, which were unpopulated and did not have a native or 'Punti' population. The Hakkas thus became the 'puntis' of these areas when they moved in. During the Qing Dynasty, the Hakka people were displaced and persecuted due to their marked classical Han culture and customs[citation needed] which differ from the Yue culture of the Cantonese Puntis, and the Manchu culture of the Qing. Refusing to practice the binding of feet (which was not a practice in Chinese classical eras), the Hakka people were marked out as 'Hak' or 'guest' people in Hong Kong [Cantonese dialect transliteration], as these people never stated which part of China their ancestors were from. Strikingly, the linguistic properties of the Hakka language indicate a language structure which antedates the evolution of the Cantonese and Mandarin dialects[citation needed]: from a linguistic perspective, it remains implausible to suggest that the Hakka language originated from the Northern provinces, which was never claimed as the Hakkas were from what is today's Central China (but of course this is still north of Guangdong). It is thus highly plausible that the Hakka language is much closer to the original spoken Chinese, than any of the present day Sinitic languages[original research?]. It is therefore likely that both Northern and Southern Chinese speeches evolved from a Hakka language.[1]. Guangdong people have a habit of referring to people from Hunan as 'Northerners', when Hunan is geographically in the southern half of China, because Hunan is north of Guangdong. The last great migration of the Hakka people towards Hong Kong took place at the time of the 'Tai Ping' revolution (1850-1864). Hakka dissenters featured in the anti-government rebellion and subsequently were persecuted following the failure of the Tai Ping revolution. One notable feature of the Hakka culture was their marked embrace of the Christian faith[citation needed] which at the time of anti-Western sentiment in the Qing dynasty added more cultural impetus for their persecution. The Hakkas were thus much more Western and modern in outlook than the general Chinese populace.[citation needed]

Traditional Hakka religious affiliation requires further exploration; the Hakka people practised mainstream Confucian practices as any other Chinese group, with a hierarchised dependence on authority given through the family head. Christianised by Protestant missionaries in the mid-19th century who gave food aid to the Hakka and the poor, the Hakka were often slanderously categorised by Puntis with the cult practices of Hong Xiuquan's Taiping Tianguo movement. Thus the new settlers were forced by the circumstances and, not physically by the Puntis, to concentrate on the northern New Territories of Hong Kong. The few poor, uneducated Puntis, and addicted to opium[citation needed], in the area experienced an identity crisis with the arrival of the Chinese Hakkas whose economic ascent, shamed their own[citation needed]. Punti violence and contributed much to the persecution of the Hakka people in Hong Kong although some sources[citation needed] suggest that the Hakka people were able to defend their own, as the Hakkas had become the 'punti' of the area and their number overwhelmed the few sick and drug addicted people using the area as a hiding place[citation needed]. Responding through Confucian defences, the Hakka people placed a greater reliance on the internal strengths of their own customs and cultural identity[citation needed]. This model of community survival, dependent on the integrity of the nuclear clan unit in the face of adversity has contributed to the 20th century outcome of preserving the cultural identity of the Hakka people. The Hakkas could defend themselves against Puntis because they have a warrior tradition, a tradition of fairness and fair-play[citation needed], a tradition of providing military service and being military leaders of China. British Law was also in force in Hong Kong, preventing any major incidents from taking place.

Occupationally, Hakka were agriculture based, as were about 95% of the Chinese population then. There was high unemployment amongst the Puntis in those times as Hong Kong was still a backwater. The Hakka 'mountain song' as well as songs of 'eight tones' have become famed, particularly outside of Hong Kong by several Hakka artists. The traditional Hakka mountain song expressed human struggle and toil in the early and harsh settlement of a land which was untreaded by man, requiring clearing and human effort. Puntis did not like to work in the land despite their high unemployment rate. Hakka folk-art remains a strong reminder of the folk origin and connection and the naturalistic tendencies of the Hakka populus, working within a self-dependent synergistic agrarian bioecosystem, in exactly the same manner as any other Chinese peasant farmer of the time. Geographically segregated from Qing Dynasty control and persecution following China's military failures of the 19th century, the Hakka people placed great reliance on a traditional but free society with the opportunities to trade and improve. The striving ethos in the Hakka people of Hong Kong also emphasized ancestral and cultural customs with strong Confucian leanings, recognised for its Chineseness, and the modern Western Christian thoughts. In Hong Kong, Hakka villages continue to be aggregated loosely around clanship, maintaining blood-ties to families (often identified through genealogy), as most well connected Puntis also do, but is lost amongst the lower class Puntis. Land rights in The New Territories of Hong Kong are based on English Common Law in respect to Land Law, and apply to both Puntis and Hakkas, and any other people of the region, irrespective of their spoken language. These laws are accepted and followed by the Hong Kong SAR government.

It is well documented that when the British took over Hong Kong, the territory was almost unpopulated. The Hakkas of Hong Kong were one its earliest inhabitants, and many arrived several centuries before the migration into Hong Kong by Punti Cantonese people. The term Hakka refers to a people and not who was the first to arrived in Hong Kong. To be technically correct, the Hakkas are the Puntis of Hong Kong if one were to make Punti mean aboriginal. Late arrivers to Hong Kong, such the Shanghainese during the Chinese Civil War, are not referred to as 'guests' but by the city from which they took their language. The Hakkas were different as they did not reveal their origins because many of them fled when the Chinese Law was that they could be sentenced to death because someone in their clan nine generations removed had committed treason.

[edit] Cuisine

The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. There is a view that Hakka cuisine is pragmatic and based on preserved foods due to the harsh environment that the Hakka people endured. Whereas this may hold true for preserved meats, it is not accurate to typecast Hakka food as preserved to survive hardships. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire. In fact the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine, what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine is consumed without people realising it; in Hong Kong most of the widely available convenience food is Hakka[citation needed], for example Char Siu (roast fillet of pork),[citation needed] roast duck,[citation needed] and geese[citation needed]. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat. Most of the Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom are Hakka owned.

The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Tza Tai Chong). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy (盆菜)[1]. While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population. Other dishes consumed by Hakkas and probably all Chinese include chicken's feet and duck's feet.

[edit] Modern society

It should be noted that the Hakka's modern societal structure and experience comprehends far more diverse and complex global elements than the Hong Kong landscape, where only a small fraction of the Hakka reside or have transitioned through.

[edit] Preservation

In the latter half of the 20th century, a stronger emphasis has been placed on Hakka preservation through folk art and customs. A Hakka language dictionary has also been completed auspiciously on 1997 by Dr CF Lau [ISBN Reference: ISBN 962-201-750-9], a devoted contributor to the preservation of the Hakka language in Hong Kong.

[edit] Hakkas worldwide

The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably India, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Myanmar and Thailand.

Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There once was a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most there have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia,Taiwan or Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek.

[edit] Hakkas in Indonesia

Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Bangka and Belitung islands as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Kalimantan in the 19th century. In the early 20th Century new arrivals from Mei xien joined their compatriots as traders and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta and Pontianak.

[edit] Bangka Belitung

Hakkas also live in the Indonesia's biggest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province[2]. They were the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000[3]. Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia as well.

The first ancestries of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung have reached the islands in 1700s from Guangdong, many of them worked as tin mining labours. Since that they have stayed the island along with the native Malay people. The condition is much different with Chinese and natives in other region as they always came into clashes before year of 1999 when Indonesian Chinese finally got their freedom again since 1960's. But here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festival such as in celebrating Chinese New Year and Qingming while in other region were heavily banned by government before 1999 [4]. The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism or Buddhism, and significant number of Christian. A little number of them confessed Islam as some of them married Malays.

Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay, especially in younger generation. The younger generations spoke much Malay than older people. Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words; differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely. The Hakka spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions. But they still said themself as Thong ngin as well as younger people and spoke Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Belinyu area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the Islands especially to Jakarta. There were more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta. They still spoke their language both Malay and Thong boi.

There were also a big Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who lived abroad such as in China and Hongkong. They proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so once or twice a year they always returned home to celebrate Chinese new year or pay their respects in Qingming[5][6].

[edit] Pontianak

Hakka people in Pontianak live along side with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the hakkas are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochews dialect and vocabularies from the local Malay and Dayak tribes.

The Hakkas in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.

[edit] Singkawang

The hakkas in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speaks a different standard of hakka dialect to the hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu not Mei Xien.

[edit] Jakarta

Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increases with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.

[edit] Hakkas in East Timor

There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated about 25,000 Hakkas (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion many Hakka were slaughtered. According to a book source, it was estimated about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka association registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remained (400 families, including half Timorese families) in East Timor.

Now the Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their educations in Taiwan or China, with majority of younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, partially related to political situation of East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had became successful and established food chains, shops, supermarkets and importers in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2002, some Hakka families had returned and invest in businesses in the newborn nation.

[edit] Hakkas in Malaysia

Hakkas form the 2nd largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. A well known Hakka man is Yap Ah Loy, whom was a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.

In East Malaysia, although they formed a significant part of the Bornean state of Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent, however the younger generation of Hakka descent are likely to use Mandarin as the primary language between themselves, which could be that the Hakka language will be forgotten by some of them. In the city of Sandakan, the majority of the Hakka are Cantonese speaking.

This is indicative of the tendency of Chinese subgroups to immigrate into concentrations of culturally identical populations, resulting in different regions of Malaysia have different dominant Chinese dialects.

[edit] Hakkas in Mauritius

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region. Some of them have emigrated from Calcutta.

Today the language of most Mauritian Hakkas speak are Creole, French, English and Hakka, depending on how much their parents have tried to keep the Hakka language alive.

Many Mauritian Hakkas have also emigrated to Canada and Australia.

[edit] Prominent Hakkas

The Hakka have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their small total numbers, on the course of Chinese and Overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary and political leaders.

Hakka were active in the Taiping Rebellion [Jonathan D. Spence, "God's Chinese Son", 1997 - see references], led by the notorious and failed Qing scholar Hong Xiuquan, who claimed he was the younger brother of Jesus. Hong Xiuquan consistently failed entry into public office through his examinations. Influenced by Protestant missionaries, Hong Xiuquan's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following grew across the southern provinces and despite disavowal by missionaries, his movement, supported by various generals, formed the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (Taiping Tian Guo), which at one stage in the latter 19th century almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. It contributed to the Qing Dynasty's military failures in defending China against external invaders as the Qing Dynasty became preoccupied with internal issues.

This continues to be true in modern Chinese history, in which some of the most prominent Chinese leaders have been Hakkas. In the 1980s-90s, the three majority-Chinese polities in the world were led simultaneously by three leaders of Hakka origin: the People's Republic of China's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping, the Republic of China's President Lee Teng-hui and Singapore's Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew. Deng & Lee Kuan Yew were among four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine.

[edit] Revolutionaries and politicians

[edit] Government officials

  • Supachai Panitchpakdi, (1946-; born in Thailand), first and only Director-General of World Trade Organization of Asian origin
  • Yong Pung How (Dapu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), former Chief Justice, Singapore
  • Yeung Kam John Bernard, Yeung Sik Yuen (Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Chief Justice, Mauritius
  • Pedro Lay, (born in East-Timor), current Minister of Infrastructure, Republic Democratic of Timor-Leste,2007 - 2012.
  • Gil Alves, (born in East-Timor), current Minister of Tourism, Commerce & Industry, Republic Democratic of Timor-Leste,2007 - 2012.
  • Kong Mu, (born in East-Timor), finance advisor for Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries, Republic Democratic of Timor-Leste.2004 ~ ...
  • Datuk Wong Lok Khiam, co-founder of the Sabah Chinese Association, Sabah,Malaysia (Huizhou, Guangdong;born Malaysia)
  • David Soong Min Foh ( Meixian,Guagdong; born Malaysia), former Immigration Assistant Controller of State of Sabah,Federation of Malaysia
  • Soong Min Kong (Meixian, Guangdong;born Malaysia), former Director-General Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Federation of Malaysia
  • Dato' Fu Ah Kiow,(Meixian, Guangdong;born Malaysia), current Deputy Minister of Internal Security,Federation of Malaysia
  • Dato' Hon Choon Kim, (Meixian, Guangdong; born Malaysia), current Deputy Minister of Education,Federation of Malaysia
  • Datuk Seri Yong Teck Li, (Long Chuan, GuangDong; born Malaysia), former Chief Minister of Sabah, founder of SAPP political party

Tan Sri Datuk Amar Stephen Yong Kuet Tze(杨国斯)(Daipu,Guangdong广东省大埔县百侯镇),former Minister of Science, Technology & Environment, Malaysia.

[edit] Literary figures

  • Guo Moruo (1892-1978), famous Chinese literary figure
  • Han Suyin (1917-; Xinyang, Henan), famous author of books on modern China
  • Luo Xianglin (Xingning, Guangdong), the most renowned scholar on Hakka culture and language

[edit] Artists

  • Lin Fengmian (1900 - 1991; Meizhou, Guangdong), aka Lim Foong Min in Hakka - first to harmoniously combine Western and Chinese painting techniques.
  • Hong Huang Yin: contemporary mainland classical Chinese singer releases 'Hakka Lady' - a collection of Hakka mountain songs on KIIGO Records [S/N: KG 1030-2]
  • Chu Lung-hsien: contemporary Taiwanese Hakka folk music. Lead vocalist for "The Stiff Necked Hakka Band"
  • Lai Bi-Sia: popular contemporary Taiwanese Hakka folk singer who has contributed over the past 50 years to the revival of the Hakka mountain song. Lai Bi-Sia has a music repertoire over seventy albums of which her music and lyrics are pieced individually by Bi-Sia.
  • Hsu Mu-Jheng: Traditional self-taught Hakka mountain song artist
  • Yong Mun Sen,杨曼生((Yong Yen Lang) (1986-1962; 广东省大埔县百侯镇 Daipu,Guangdong). Yong Mun Sen, the Father of Malaysian Painting.

[edit] Entrepreneurs

  • Yong Koon, founder of Royal Selangor, Malaysia, the largest pewter manufacturer in the world
  • Aw Boon Haw and Aw Boon Par (Yongding, Fujian; born in Burma), philanthropists of Tiger Balm fame
  • Cheong Fatt Tze (1840-1916; Dapu, Guangdong), well-respected business tycoon in South-east Asia who contributed greatly to the interests of Overseas Chinese during China's Qing and Republican era
  • Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah (born in Malaysia), founder and chairman of The Sunway Group of Companies, Malaysia
  • Alan Yau, founder of the Wagamama restaurant chain, Hakkasan, and Yauatcha.
  • Jimmy Choo, renowned designer of shoes and handbags.
  • Michael Lee-Chin, Jamaican-born Chairman and CEO of AIC Limited - one of Canada's largest mutual fund companies.
  • Edmund NS Tie (born in Singapore), Executive Chairman of DTZ(DebenhemTieLueng) Group of Companies, Singapore
  • Jannie Tay, (born in Malaysia), Chairperson, Hour Glass, Singapore
  • Michael Fam, (born in Malaysia), top corporate figure in Singapore
  • Prajogo Pangestu,or Phang Jun Phen, ( born in Indonesia), one of the tycoons in Indonesia.
  • Jape Kong Su (born in Meixian, Guandong) Founder and Chairman of Jape Group business of furniture and retail enterprise Australia, East Timor (Timor-Leste) & China
  • Dave Chong , (born in Malaysia) , Founder and Former Managing Director of NEC Infrontia Asia-Pacific
  • Sebastian Chin (Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), founder and current Chairman of Reprographic Business Machines (Sabah) Sdn. Bhd. and former Lions' Club President of Kota Kinabalu Metro 1986-1987
  • Wing Yip Founder of The Wing Yip Supermarkets in the UK.

[edit] Entertainers

  • Hong Kong
    • Leslie Cheung (1956-2003; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), late Hong Kong singer/actor
    • Chow Yun-Fat (1955-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong and Hollywood actor
    • Leon Lai (1966-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Beijing), one of the "Four Great Heavenly Kings" of Chinese pop music
    • Alex Man (Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong actor
    • Cherie Chung, Hong Kong actress
    • Jordan Chan (Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong actor
    • Eric Tsang (Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong actor-comedian
    • Francis Yip (Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong singer
    • Deanie Yip (Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong singer/actress
    • Shirley Yeung (Hong Kong actress)
  • Taiwan
    • Hou Hsiao-Hsien (1947-; Meixian, Guangdong), award-winning Taiwanese film director
    • Lin Feng Qiao, famous Taiwanese actress in 70s-80s, wife of Jackie Chan
    • Luo Dayou, godfather of Taiwan pop music
    • S.H.E, Taiwanese female pop group
      • Hebe Tien
      • Ella Chen
    • Shino Lin, Taiwanese singer
  • People's Republic of China
    • Huang Wanqiu (Meixian, Guangdong), China actress of the classic movie "Liu San Jie" (Third Sister Liu)
  • Singapore
    • Fann Wong, famous Singaporean actress-singer-model
    • Dick Lee, Singaporean musician
    • Adrian Pang, Singaporean actor
    • Michelle Chong, Singaporean actress
    • Ho Yeow Sun, Singaporean singer; First and only Asian singer to top the US Billboard Dance Chart and the UK MusicWeek Chart; Only singer selected to be music ambassador for 2008 Beijing Olympics
    • Yew Hong Chow, 游宏钊 Singaporean Classical Musician and Harmonica Virtuso, featured in 'Singapore Gaga', a Singapore made documentary by Tan Pin Pin
  • Malaysia
    • Eric Moo, famous Malaysian pop singer
    • Guang Liang and Wang Pingguan (Hepo, Guangdong), famous Malaysian pop singers
    • Penny Tai (Haifeng/Lufeng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Malaysian pop singer
    • Zhang Zhicheng, famous Malaysian singer
  • Indonesia

[edit] Sportspersons

  • Lin Dan, World badminton champion
  • Kenneth Pang, Australian basketballer and snowboarder
  • Alexander 'Ding Dong' Dang, Ping Pong

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Sterling, Richard. Chong, Elizabeth. Qin, Lushan Charles. [2001] (2001) World Food Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Lonely Planet Publishing. ISBN 1864502886
  2. ^ "Dari Tiongkok ke Pulau Bangka Bedol Desa ala Kuli Tionghoa", AMCA, August 19th, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. 
  3. ^ "Hakka ngin in Bangka Islands,Indonesia", Asiawind, October 27th, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. 
  4. ^ "Kebersamaan Tanpa Prasangka", KOMPAS, August 23rd, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. 
  5. ^ "Menengok Kelenteng-kelenteng Tua di Bangka", KOMPAS, April 15th, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. 
  6. ^ "Ribuan Warga Tionghoa Rayakan Ceng Beng", KOMPAS, August 19th, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. 
  • The Hakka Dialect. A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon, by Mantaro J. Hashimoto. (Cambridge University Press, 1973).
  • The secret history of the Hakkas: the Chinese revolution as a Hakka enterprise by Mary S. Erbaugh, The China Quarterly, No. 132, December 1992, pp. 937-968.
  • God's Heavenly Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan, by Jonathan D. Spence. (pub. W.W. Norton, reprint) 1997. (ISBN-13 978-0393315561)

[edit] External links

Hakka edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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