People known as the father or mother of something

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È:Revisions and sourced additions are welcome; please only include historical figures.

The following is a list of significant men and women known in history for being the father, mother, or considered the founders of something, listed by category. In some fields the title of being the "father" is debatable.

Contents

[edit] Sciences

[edit] Branches

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
science Galileo Galilei[1] Contributions to scientific method, physics, and observational astronomy
Acoustics Ernst Chladni[2] For important research in vibrating plates
Modern Science Galileo Galilei[3] For systemic use of experimentation in science
Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal[4]
(founder) 		For his formation of neuron doctrine
Aerodynamics George Cayley[5]
(founder) 		Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
Astronomy (modern) Nicolaus Copernicus[6] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
Bacteriology Robert Koch, Ferdinand Cohn,
Louis Pasteur[7] (founders) 		For their studies and scientific findings on bacteria and algae
Biology Aristotle[8]
Chemical thermodynamics (modern) Gilbert Lewis, Willard Gibbs Merle Randall, and Edward Guggenheim (founders)[9] Books: Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933); because of the major contributions of these two books in unifying the applications of thermodynamics to chemistry
Chemistry (early) Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)[10][11][12] Introduced the experimental method in alchemy (d. 815)
Chemistry (modern) Antoine Lavoisier[13]
Robert Boyle[13]
Jöns Berzelius[14][15]
John Dalton[13] (founders) 		Book: Elements of Chemistry (1787)
Book: The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)
Revival of atomic theory (1803)
Circulatory physiology Ibn al-Nafis[16] Discovered the pulmonary circulation and the capillary and coronary circulations in the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon (1242)
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton (founder)[17] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
Economics Adam Smith[18] Publication: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
Energetics Willard Gibbs[19] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
Evolution and Natural Selection Charles Darwin[20][21][22]For providing scientific evidence for evolution via natural selection Publication: On the Origin of Species
Genetics Gregor Mendel[23] For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance
Geology James Hutton[24] For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory of thought
Human anatomy (modern) Vesalius[25]
Book: De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
Information theory Claude Shannon[citation needed] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
Medicine (early) Imhotep[26][27][28]
Hippocrates[29][8]
Charaka[30] 		Wrote the first medical treatise, the Edwin Smith papyrus.
Prescribed practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath, establishing the profession.
Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.
Medicine (modern) Avicenna[31] Introduced experimental medicine and systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology and discovered the contagious nature of infectious diseases in the The Canon of Medicine (1020).
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[32] The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford[33] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[34] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes)[35] Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independant field
Plastic surgery Sushruta[36][37] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita
Physical chemistry Hermann von Helmholtz,

Willard Gibbs(founders)[38]

Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry through their publications off, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances(1876), and Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange(1882)
Physics Galileo Galilei[39] His development and use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope.
Physiology (modern) Claude Bernard[40] Publication: An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)
Quantum mechanics Max Planck (founder)[41] Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
Relativity Albert Einstein(founder)[42] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
Scientific method Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[43]
Francis Bacon[44] 		Pioneered an early scientific method in the Book of Optics (1021).
For Developing Baconian method
Surgery (early) Sushruta[36][37] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita, the first surgical treatise
Surgery (modern) Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis)[45]
Ambroise Paré[46] 		Publication: Kitab al-Tasrif (1000).
Leader in surgical techniques, especially the treatment of wounds.
Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus
[47](founder) 		naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot (founder)[48] Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)
Virology Martinus Beijerinck[49]
(founder) 		His studies of agricultural microbiology and industrial microbiology yielded fundamental discoveries in the field of biology

[edit] Mathematics

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Algebra
See also Father of Algebra 		Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[50][51]
Diophantus[52][53] 		Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing.
First use of symbolism (syncopation) in the Arithmetica.
Algorithm Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[51] Wrote the rules of algorism
Analytic Geometry René Descartes
Pierre de Fermat[54](founders) 		For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System
Calculus Isaac Newton[55]
Gottfried Leibniz[citation needed] 		See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama[56] Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions
Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge[57]
(founder) 		Developed a graphical protocol which creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
Geometry Euclid[58] Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
Non-Euclidean Geometry János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[59](founders) 		Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
Projective Geometry Gérard Desargues[60](founder) By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
Statistics Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal,and Christiaan Huygens
[61](founders) 		For their development of probability theory, from which arises mathematical statistics
Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[62]
(founder) 		Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
Trigonometry Hipparchus[63][64] Constructed the first trigonometric table.
Vector algebra,
Vector calculus 		Willard Gibbs[65]
Oliver Heaviside[66]
(founders) 		For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

[edit] Other

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Electricity William Gilbert[67]
Michael Faraday[citation needed]
Benjamin Franklin[citation needed]
Thomas Edison[68] 		Book: De Magnete (1600)
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Proposed a kite experiment to prove that lightning is electricity (1750)
Invented many electrical devices, such as the carbon microphone
Momentum Avicenna[69] Described an early concept of momentum.
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev[70] Arranged sixty-six elements (known at the time) in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869)

[edit] Technology

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Architecture Imhotep[71] Built the first pyramid
Applied Mechanics (modern) Stephen Timoshenko Reputed to be the father of modern applied mechanics. Wrote many of the seminal works in this area, many of which are still used today.
Computing Charles Babbage[72] Inventor of the Analytical Engine which was never constructed in his lifetime.
Computer Konrad Zuse[73]Alan Turing[74]
John von Neumann[75]
John V. Atanasoff[76] 		Invented world's first functional program-controlled computer.
Was a secret code breaker during the WWII and invented the Turing machine (1936)
Became "intrigued" with Turing's universal machine and later emphasised the importance of the stored-program concept for electronic computing (1945), including the possibility of allowing the machine to modify its own program in useful ways while running
Invented the digital computer in the 1930s
Computer Program Ada Lovelace[77] Recognized by historians as the writer of the world's first computer program which was for the Charles Babbage Analytical Engine, but was never complete within either her or his lifetime.
Engineering (modern) Al-Jazari[78] Invented devices fundamental to modern engineering, including the crankshaft, connecting rod, reciprocating piston suction pump, valve, combination lock, etc.
Internet Vinton Cerf[79][80][81]
Robert E. Kahn[82]
Japanese television Kenjiro Takayanagi[83][84]
Pentium microprocessor Vinod Dham[85][86]
Perfumery[87] Al-Kindi (Alkindus) Founded the perfume industry.
Programmable logic controller Dick Morley[citation needed]
Radio Lee De Forest[88][89][90]
Guglielmo Marconi[91]
Jagdish Chandra Bose[92]
Nikola Tesla[citation needed] 		The research of these pioneers led to the development of the radio
Radio (Radio broadcasting) Reginald Fessenden[citation needed]
David Sarnoff[citation needed]
Radio (FM radio) Edwin H. Armstrong[citation needed] Obtained the first FCC license to operate an FM station in Alpine, New Jersey at approximately 50 megahertz (1939)
Robotics Al-Jazari[93] Invented the first programmable humanoid robot.
SGML Charles Goldfarb[94]
Telephone Alexander Graham Bell[95]
Television Allen B. DuMont[96]
World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee[97]
XML Jon Bosak[98]

[edit] Humanities

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Anthropology Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[99][100]
Demography Ibn Khaldun[101] Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
Egyptology Jean-François Champollion[citation needed]
Geodesy Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[99]
Grammar Pāṇini[102] Wrote the Ashtadhyayi
Historiography Ibn Khaldun[103] Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
History Herodotus[104][8]
History of science George Sarton[105] Founded Isis (1912) and wrote Introduction to the History of Science (1927)
Indology Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[106] Wrote the Indica and Critical study of what India says
Informatics Pāṇini[107] Wrote the Ashtadhyayi
Linguistics Pāṇini[108] Wrote the Ashtadhyayi
Microcredit Muhammad Yunus[109] Founded Grameen Bank
Military strategy Hannibal[110] Pioneered double envelopement manoeuver at Battle of Cannae
Philosophy of history Ibn Khaldun[111] Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
Political science (modern) Niccolò Machiavelli[112] Discussion of and concern with how people actually behave, as opposed to how people should behave.
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud[113]
Sociology Ibn Khaldun[101][111]
Auguste Comte[114] 		Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).
Introduced the scientific method into sociology.

[edit] Arts

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Bluegrass music Bill Monroe[115]
Country music Jimmie Rodgers[116][117][118]
Funk George Clinton (godfather)[119]
Grunge Kurt Cobain[120]
Television Sandeep Marwah (Father Of Television Training In India)
Jazz Buddy Bolden[121]
Jelly Roll Morton[122]
Theodore August Metz[123]
Soul music James Brown (godfather)[124]

[edit] Sports

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Baseball Henry Chadwick[125][126][127][128]
Karting Art Ingels[129] Developed the world's first kart (1956)

[edit] Miscellaneous

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Yellow school bus Frank W. Cyr[130]

[edit] Alphabetic list

Note: These are slowly being converted to category list (and many are being removed).


Contents Top · 0–9 · A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

[edit] A

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard Danish painting [131]
Erik Acharius lichenology [132]
Mikael Agricola Finnish written language [133]
Peter Artedi ichthyology [134]
Cyrus Avery Route 66 [135]

[edit] B

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Mikhail Bakunin anarchism [136]
Earl Bascom modern rodeo [137]
Aaron T. Beck cognitive therapy [138]
William George Beers lacrosse [139][140][141][142]
Vytautas Beliajus international folk dance in the United States [143]
Edward Bernays public relations [144]
Leonardo Bruni modern history [145]

[edit] C

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Willis Carrier air conditioning [146]
Raymond Carhart audiology [147][148]
Vint Cerf Internet [149]
Geoffrey Chaucer English literature [150]
Noam Chomsky modern linguistics [151][152]
Del Close modern improv comedy [153]
Alan Cooper Visual Basic [154]
Jonas Chickering American piano manufacture [155]
Marie Curie nuclear science [156]

[edit] D

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Louis Daguerre photography [157]
Richard Dorson American folklore [158]

[edit] E

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Dwight D. Eisenhower the American Interstate Highway System [159]
William Phelps Eno traffic safety [160]
Jan van Eyck oil painting [161]

[edit] F

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Philo Farnsworth television [162]
Pierre Fauchard modern dentistry [163]
Reginald Fessenden radiotelephony [164][165]

[edit] G

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Hugo Gernsback science fiction magazine [166][167]
Robert H. Goddard astronautics [168]
Anthony Norris Groves faith missions [169]
Gary Gygax Dungeons & Dragons and role-playing games [170]
Heinz Guderian Blitzkrieg

[edit] H

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Albert Hofmann LSD [171]
Kurt Haertel European patent law [172] [173]
John Harrison the marine chronometer [174]
Joseph Haydn[175] the symphony and the string quartet [176][177][178]
Theodor Herzl Zionism [179]
Earl "Fatha" Hines modern jazz piano [180]
Homer Novel
Poetry/literature 		[181]
[8]
G. Evelyn Hutchinson modern limnology [182]
James Hutton modern geology [183]
Maulvi Abdul Haq Urdu [184]

[edit] I

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Kees Immink Compact Disc [185]

[edit] J

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
John Paul Jones United States Navy [186]

[edit] K

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Kirk Kerkorian Megaresort
Søren Kierkegaard existentialism [187]
O. Raymond Knight Canadian rodeo [188]

[edit] L

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Jack LaLanne fitness [189]
Ivy Lee public relations [190]
Vladimir Lenin the Soviet Union [191]
Justus von Liebig modern nutrition [192]
Carolus Linnaeus modern taxonomy [193]
Lucian of Samosata science fiction [194]
Martin Luther Protestantism (Lutheranism) [195]

[edit] M

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Bernarr Macfadden physical culture [196]
James Madison the United States Constitution [197]
Harry Markowitz Modern portfolio theory [198]
Karl Marx Communism
Matthew Fontaine Maury modern naval oceanography and meteorology [199]

[edit] N

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Robert Napier Clyde shipbuilding [200]
Thomas Nast the American political cartoon [201]
Necessity Invention
Nicéphore Niépce photography [202]
Florence Nightingale Nursing (modern) [203]

[edit] O

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Francis Ohanyido African Neo-Renaissance [204]
Hermann Oberth astronautics [205]
Robert Oppenheimer the atomic bomb [206]

[edit] P

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Frank Pantridge emergency medicine [207]
Lester B. Pearson UN peacekeeping [208]
Linus Pauling molecular biology [209]
Paracelsus toxicology [210]
Petrarch humanism [211][212]

[edit] R

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Ma Rainey the blues [213]
David Ricardo communism [214]
Hyman G. Rickover the "atomic" submarine and "nuclear navy" [215] [216] [217]
Charles S. Roberts wargaming [218]
Jimmie Rodgers country music [219] [220] [221]
Benjamin Rush American Psychiatry [222]
Ernest Rutherford nuclear physics [223]

[edit] S

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Andrei Sakharov the Soviet Union's hydrogen bomb [224]
Italo Santelli modern sabre fencing [225]
Erik Satie ambient music [226]
Thomas Say entomology in North America [227]
Moritz Schlick Logical positivism [228]
J. Marion Sims gynaecology [229] [230]
George C. Stoney public access television [231]
Hubertus Strughold space medicine [232]
Leó Szilárd the atomic bomb [233]

[edit] T

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
William Henry Fox Talbot photography [234]
Edward Teller the hydrogen bomb [235]
LaMarcus Adna Thompson "gravity" (the rollercoaster) [236]
J. R. R. Tolkien modern fantasy literature [237]
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky cosmonautics [238]
Tsunekazu Ishihara Pokémon [239]
Mark Twain American literature [240]

[edit] V

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Jules Verne science fiction [241][167]

[edit] W

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Alice Waters California cuisine [242]
Muddy Watersa Chicago blues / electric blues [243]
John B. Watson Behaviorism [244]
Thomas Wedgwood photography [245]
H.G. Wells science fiction [241][167]
H.G. Wells miniature wargaming [246]
John Wesley Methodism [247]
Frank Whittle the jet engine [248][249]
Mary Wollstonecraft feminism [250][251]
Norbert Wiener cybernetics [252][253]
Steve Wozniak the personal computer [254]
Wilhelm Wundt modern psychology [255]

a McKinley Morganfield

[edit] Y

Name Father / Mother of ... Sources
Mike Yurosek the baby carrot [256]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. Universe, p. 155.
  2. ^ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
  3. ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007), "Book Review—The Person of the Millenium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History", The Historian 69 (3): 601–602
  4. ^ Ramón y Cajal, Santiago [1897] (1999). Advice for a Young Investigator, translated by Neely Swanson and Larry W. Swanson, Cambridge: MIT Press.
  5. ^ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
  6. ^ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
  7. ^ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
  8. ^ a b c d Strong, W.F. & Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys", Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521, <http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php>
  9. ^ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2. 
  10. ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
  11. ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
  12. ^ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
  13. ^ a b c Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity , That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution (Epilogue: A Tale of Three Fathers). ISBN 0-262-11273-6. 
  14. ^ Berzelius, Jöns (1779-1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
  15. ^ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2 Aug 2007
  16. ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
  17. ^ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
  18. ^ Steven Pressman. Fifty Major Economists. (1999). Routledge. ISBN 0415134811 p.20
  19. ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911
  20. ^ Darwin, Charles (1842 (published 1909)), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  21. ^ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  22. ^ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  23. ^ [http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Lifescience/GeneralBiology/Physiology/FatherGenetics/FatherGenetics/FatherGenetics.htm
  24. ^ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
  25. ^ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
  26. ^ Mostafa Shehata, MD (2004), "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration", J Med Ethics 12, p. 171-176 [176].
  27. ^ How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007.
  28. ^ Jimmy Dunn, Imhotep, Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser.[1]
  29. ^ Hippocrates, Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation.
  30. ^ Nirupama Laroia, M.D. and Deeksha Sharma (June 2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus", Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2), p. 94-98.
  31. ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
  32. ^ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
  33. ^ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5. 
  34. ^ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
  35. ^ David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
  36. ^ a b A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
  37. ^ a b H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
  38. ^ Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  39. ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0595368778.
  40. ^ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
  41. ^ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
  42. ^ [2]. URL accessed December 5 2006.
  43. ^ Rosanna Gorini (2003). "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy.
  44. ^ MLA style: "Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408>. APA style: Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam. (2007).
  45. ^ Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
  46. ^ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
  47. ^ Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
  48. ^ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6. 
  49. ^ Chung, King-Thom and Ferris, Deam Hunter (1996). Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851-1931): pioneer of general microbiology. AMS News 62, 539-543.
  50. ^ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
  51. ^ a b Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, The Hindu, June 23, 2006.
  52. ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony", A History of Mathematics, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 228. ISBN 0471543977. “Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khwarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers.” 
  53. ^ Derbyshire, John (2006). "The Father of Algebra", Unknown Quantity: