Everglades National Park

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Everglades National Park
IUCN Category Ib (Wilderness Area)
Image:LocMap Everglades National Park.png
Location	Florida, USA
Nearest city	Florida City Everglades City
Coordinates	25°19′0″N 80°56′0″W / 25.31667, -80.93333Coordinates: 25°19′0″N 80°56′0″W / 25.31667, -80.93333
Area	1,508,571 acres (6,104 km²) 1,494,970 acres (6,049 km²) federal
Established	December 6, 1947
Visitors	954,022 (in 2006)
Governing body	National Park Service

Everglades National Park is the largest subtropical wilderness in the United States.^[1] It contains the southern 25% of the original Everglades, and receives about a million visitors annually.^[2] It is the third largest national park in the lower 48 states after Death Valley National Park and Yellowstone National Park.^[3] Unlike most other national parks in the United States, Everglades National Park was created to protect a fragile ecosystem, as opposed to safeguarding a geographic feature. It has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site, and a Wetland of International Importance.^[4] There are 36 federally threatened or protected species that exist within park boundaries that include the Florida panther, American crocodile, and West Indian manatee. Everglades National Park protects the largest wilderness area east of the Mississippi River.^[5]

The water system of all of South Florida is dependent upon Everglades National Park to recharge the fresh water to the region, as well as to the Biscayne Aquifer.^[5] It is the most significant breeding ground for tropical wading birds in North America, and it contains the largest mangrove ecosystem in the Western Hemisphere.^[5] There are over 350 species of birds that live within Everglades National Park, as well as 300 species of fresh and saltwater fish, 40 mammals, and 50 different kinds of reptiles.^[6]

The Everglades is a slow moving system of rivers, flowing southwest about a quarter of a mile a day, fed by the Kissimmee River and Lake Okeechobee.^[7] Although people have lived in the Everglades for thousands of years, since 1848 people have tried to drain the Everglades for agricultural or residential use, and control the water flow from Lake Okeechobee, diverting it to metropolitan areas in Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach Counties. The ecosystems in the Everglades National Park have suffered significantly due to human actions, and the repair and restoration of the Everglades is a politically charged issue in South Florida.

Contents 1 Park ecology 1.1 Hardwood hammocks 1.2 Pineland 1.3 Mangrove 1.4 Coastal Lowlands 1.5 Freshwater Slough 1.6 Freshwater Marl Prairie 1.7 Cypress 1.8 Marine & Estuarine 2 Human history 2.1 Native people 2.2 American settlements 2.3 Land development and conservation 3 Park history 3.1 Restoration efforts 3.2 Park economics 4 Activities 4.1 Trails 4.2 Camping 4.3 Boating & fishing 5 Threats to the park and ecology 5.1 Diversion and quality of water 5.2 Urban encroachment 5.3 Endangered and threatened animals 5.4 Drought and fire 5.5 Non-native species 6 See also 7 Bibliography 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Park ecology

Everglades National Park expands through 1,509,000 acres (6,110 km²), throughout Dade, Monroe and Collier Counties in Florida. The elevation spans from 0 to 8 feet (2.4 m) above sea level. An Indian-built shell mound on the Gulf Coast rises 20 feet (6.1 m) above sea level. There are two seasons in Everglades National Park. The dry season spans from December to April when temperatures range from 53 °F (12 C) to 77 °F (25 C) and humidity is low. Since water levels are low during this time, animals congregate at central water locations and wildlife viewing and birdwatching are at their best.^[8] The wet season is from May to November. Temperatures during this part of the year are almost constantly over 90 °F (33 C) and humidity is typically over 90%.^[9] Rainstorms can dump between 10 to 12 inches (300 mm) of rain at a time providing half the year's average of 60 inches (152 cm) of rainfall in two months.^[10]

Unlike the northern portion of Florida, there are no underground springs that feed water into the Everglades system. An underground reservoir called the Floridan Aquifer is approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) below the surface in South Florida.^[11] All the water in the Everglades and coming into the system is from rain that falls directly on the land, or falls to the north, in or near Lake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River that can show up in the Everglades days later. Water overflows Lake Okeechobee in a 40- to 70-mile (110 km) wide river that creeps along almost unseen.^[12]

The Everglades appeared above sea level between 100,000 and 15,000 years ago. Areas on land that rise above others are called keys, whether surrounded by water or not.^[13] These keys were formed on limestone originally developed underwater. As ocean water was captured in polar icecaps, sea levels fell and exposed more land. Plants began to migrate, some from the northern part of Florida, and some carried as seeds by birds from Caribbean islands.^[14] Today, the National Park Service recognizes eight distinct ecosystems found in the park, in a constantly changing terrain dependent upon weather elements and the amount of rain and water the Everglades receives.^[15]

[edit] Hardwood hammocks

Only a matter of inches in elevation makes the difference between the grass covered river and any above-water land that may appear. Hammocks are often the only dry land within the park. They are identifiable by being dominated by larger live oak trees, often forming canopies under which animals thrive amongst scrub bushes of wild coffee, white indigoberry, poisonwood and saw palmetto. Water moving slowly around the hammocks gives them a teardrop appearance from above (see park map). Trees, including wild-tamarind, gumbo limbo, rarely grow higher than 50 feet (15 m) due to lightning strikes, wind, and cold weather.^[16][17] There are thousands of these tree islands in the park boundaries.

Plant growth around the base of these islands is so dense it is almost impenetrable, however inside the island and under the canopy there is more space, perfect for animals. Reptiles such as various species of snake, anole, and the amphibian green tree frog find their homes in the hardwood hammocks. Birds such as the barred owl, woodpecker, cardinal, and southern bald eagle nest in trees in this region. Mammal species that live in hardwood hammocks include opossums, raccoons, bobcats, everglades mink, marsh rabbits, white-tailed deer, and the rarely seen Florida panther.^[16]

[edit] Pineland

Often called pine rockland, this ecosystem is characterized by shallow dry sandy loam over a limestone substrate covered almost exclusively by slash pines. Trees grow in solution holes: the soft limestone has worn away and soil fills in where trees and plants take hold.^[18] This ecosystem requires fire to maintain it, so there are often prescribed burns for these areas every three to seven years.^[19] Most plants in this ecosystem bloom approximately 16 weeks after a fire. Almost all pinelands have an understory of palm shrubs, but wild herbs in these areas are diverse.

There is a variety of animal species that find their food, shelter, nesting, and rooking needs met in pine rocklands. Woodpeckers, meadowlark, shrike, grackle, and mockingbirds are all common birds found in pinelands. The Florida black bear and the Florida panther both live in this habitat as well.^[19] The pine rocklands are considered one of the most threatened habitats in Florida; there are less than 4,000 acres (16 km²) of pineland in Florida, all of them in Everglades National Park.^[20] Dade County at one point was covered in pine rockland forests, but most of it was cut down for the lumber industry.^[21]

[edit] Mangrove

Mangrove describes several species of trees that thrive in saltwater and brackish water. The mangrove trees act as nursery for many marine and bird species, and are Florida coast's first defense against the destructive forces of hurricanes. They absorb flood waters and prevent coastal erosion with roots that spread wide and trap sediment. The mangrove system in Everglades National Park is the largest continuous system of mangroves in the world. Due to their high tolerance of salt water, winds, extreme tides, high temperatures, and muddy soils, mangroves are considered uniquely adapted more than any other plant to extreme conditions.^[22]

There are 220 species of fish that live in the Florida mangrove systems, as well as a variety of crabs, crayfish, shrimp, mollusks, and other invertebrates that serve as the main source of food for many birds.^[23] Dozens of species of birds use mangroves as nurseries and food stores, including pelicans, grebes, tricolored heron, gulls, terns, hawks and kites, and arboreal birds like Mangrove cuckoo, yellow warbler, and white-crowned pigeon.^[24] Also common among the mangroves are 24 species of amphibians and reptiles, and 18 species of mammals, including the endangered green sea turtle, Hawksbill turtle, and West Indian manatee.^[25]

[edit] Coastal Lowlands

The region between mangroves and pine rocklands is referred to as coastal lowlands or wet prairies. Coastal lowlands may be covered in floodwaters during times of high water, and remain dry during times of low water. There is a notable lack of trees in this region, but plants that grow here tolerate both salt and brackish water as well as desert conditions, such as succulents like saltwort and glasswort. Animal life in this zone is dependent upon the amount of water present, but commonly found animals include the Cape Sable seaside sparrow, Everglades snail kite, Florida grasshopper sparrow, Wood Stork, Eastern Indigo Snake, and small mammals such as rats, mice, and rabbits. Florida panthers are rare visitors to this region.^[26]

[edit] Freshwater Slough

Freshwater sloughs are perhaps the most common ecosystem associated with Everglades National Park. Sloughs are drainage channels that are characterized by low-lying areas covered in fresh water flowing at an almost imperceptible 100 feet (30 m) per day.^[27] Sawgrass growing to a length of 6 feet (1.8 m) or more, and broad-leafed marsh plants are so prominent in this region that it gave the Everglades its nickname, river of grass. Shark River Slough and Taylor Slough are significant features in the park (see map). Sloughs are excellent places for bird rookeries, and Everglades sloughs attract a great variety of wading birds such as herons, egrets, Roseate Spoonbill, ibises and pelicans, as well as limpkins and snail kites that eat apple snails, that in turn feed on the sawgrass. The water and availability of fish, amphibians, and young birds attracts alligators, water moccasins, and rattlesnakes. Crocodiles also coexist with alligators in Everglades National Park in the only place in the world where they do so naturally. A variety of turtles also live in freshwater sloughs.^[28]

[edit] Freshwater Marl Prairie

This region is similar to the freshwater slough, but instead of slowly flowing water in the sloughs, water seeps through porous limestone coverings called marl. Algae and other microscopic organisms attached to limestone form a poor soil that looks like gray or white mud.^[29] Sawgrass and other plants tend not to grow as tall in freshwater marl, but aquatic plants and Periphyton, a complex combination of various types of algae are much more noticeable. This region is usually underwater from three to seven months a year. Animals that live in the freshwater sloughs also live in the marl prairie. Alligators burrow in mud in this region to wait out the dry season. Trails created by alligators walking through the sawgrass and other vegetation are used by other animals.^[28][30]

[edit] Cypress

Cypress trees are conifers that are specially adapted to grow and thrive in standing fresh water. Cypress trees can grow in tightly compacted structures called cypress domes or in elongated strands over limestone or marl substrates. Corkscrew Swamp in Everglades National Park is one of the more significant cypress strands in the park. Water levels may fluctuate dramatically around cypress domes and strands, so in order to be able to breathe underwater, cypress trees develop "knees" that protrude out of the water. Dwarf cypress trees grow in dryer areas with poorer soil. Air plants called epiphytes, such as bromeliads, Spanish moss, orchids and ferns grow on the branches and trunks of cypress trees. There are 25 species of orchids that grow in Everglades National Park.^[31] Cypress trees grow relatively tall and provide excellent nesting areas for birds that include wild turkey, ibis, herons, egrets, anhinga, and belted kingfisher. Mammals found in cypress regions are white-tailed deer, squirrel, raccoon, possum, skunk, swamp rabbit, river otter, and bobcat, as well as small rodents.^[32]

[edit] Marine & Estuarine

The largest body of water within the park grounds is Florida Bay which extends from the mangrove swamps of the southern tip of the mainland of Florida to the Florida Keys. Over 800 square miles (2,100 km²) of marine ecosystem lies in this range. Coral, sponges, and seagrasses cover serve as shelter and food source for various crustaceans and mollusks that serve as food source for larger marine animals. A massive die-off of seagrasses occurred in 1987 that further endangered manatees and sea turtles. Sharks, stingrays, and barracudas also live in this ecosystem, as do larger species of fish that attract sport fishing. Along the shorelines, pelicans, shorebirds, terns, and skimmers can be seen.^[33]

[edit] Human history

[edit] Native people

Humans are thought to have inhabited the South Florida region around 10,000 to 20,000 years ago.^[34] Native Americans developed into two tribes that were centered on the east and west coasts of the southern tip of the Florida Peninsula. The Tequesta were located on the eastern side and the Calusa, greater in numbers, were located on the western side. The Everglades served as a natural boundary between them. The Calusa lived in about 30 villages, and both groups used the Everglades to travel through, but rarely lived within them, sticking primarily to coastal regions.^[35]

Both groups lived on the natural food resources available in South Florida, mostly shellfish, fish, and small mammals, game, and wild plants. Having access only to soft limestone, most of the tools fashioned by Native Americans in the region were made of shell, bone, wood, and animal teeth, such as shark's teeth used as cutting blades,^[36] or reeds sharpened to a fine point as arrows and spears.^[37] Pottery developed by these people was diverse in structure and purpose. Shell mounds exist today within the park that give archaeologists and anthropologists evidence of what the people of South Florida had at their disposal to make as tools. Spanish explorers estimated the number of Tequesta at first contact to be around 800, and Calusa at around 2,000, although the National Park Service reports there were probably about 20,000 Native Indians living in or near the Everglades when the Spanish established contact in the late 1500s.^[38] The Calusa society was more advanced, as they lived in a social strata, and were able to create canals, earthworks, and shellworks, and were organized enough to be able to resist the first Spanish attempts to conquer them. ^[39]

Although the Spanish had contact with the Tequesta and Calusa, they set their missions more to the north, near Lake Okeechobee. In the 1700s, invading Creeks incorporated the dwindling numbers of the Tequesta into their own. Neither the Tequesta nor Calusa were in existence by 1800.^[40] Disease, warfare, and capture for slavery had effectively eradicated both groups. The only evidence of their existence is a series of shell mounds within the park boundaries that was built by the Calusa.

After these groups, the Seminoles entered the area, primarily to escape white settlements. Only a few hundred Seminole hunters and scouts existed in the region until the various leftover tribes were forced to settle in what is today within Big Cypress National Preserve after the Seminole Wars.^[41] From 1859 to about 1930 the Miccosukee lived in relative isolation, trading for an existence. In 1928, surveying and construction began on the Tamiami Trail, which is the northern border of Everglades National Park. The road not only bisected the Everglades but introduced a steady if small traffic of whites into the Everglades. ^[42]

[edit] American settlements

Following the end of the Seminole Wars, Americans began settling at isolated points along the coast in what is now the park, from the Ten Thousand Islands to Cape Sable. Communities developed on the two largest pieces of dry ground in the area, Chokoloskee Island and at Flamingo on Cape Sable, both of which received post offices in the early 1890s.^[43] Chokoloskee Island is a shell mound, a midden built up to about 20 feet (6 m) high over thousands of years of occupation by the Calusa. The 1910 hurricane that struck in October was the worst on record to that point, caused flooding so severe the only land above water was a Calusa shell mound.^[43] The settlements in Chokoloskee and Flamingo served as trading centers for small populations of farmers, fishermen and charcoal burners settled in the Ten Thousand Islands, around the mouths of the rivers draining the Everglades and on Cape Sable. Both settlements and the more isolated homesteads could only be reached by boat until well into the 20th century. Everglades City, on the mainland near Chokoloskee, enjoyed a brief period of prosperity when it served as the headquarters for the construction of the Tamiami Trail beginning in 1920. A dirt road from Florida City reached Flamingo in 1922, while a causeway finally connected Chokoloskee to Everglades City on the mainland in 1956.^[44][45] After the establishment of the park, the residents of Flamingo were bought out, and the site was incorporated into the park as a visitor center, with a marina and lodge.^[43]

[edit] Land development and conservation

The Everglades, since the 1850s, has been the subject of several attempts to drain and develop before engineers understood the nature of the ecology systems. The first canals built in the Everglades did little harm to the ecosystem as they were largely ineffective in draining any large portions of it.^[46] Another attempt between 1905 and 1910 made way for agricultural fields on which grew sugarcane.

The 1920s saw an unprecedented population boom in South Florida that created a demand for land that author Michael Grunwald described as "insanity".^[47] Land was sold before any homes or structures were built on them - and in some cases before any plans for construction were in place - and new landowners were eager to make good on their investments. Mangrove trees on the coasts were taken down for better views and replaced with shallow rooted palm trees. Plans for larger canals were put in place and construction began by the US Army Corps of Engineers to control the rising waters in the Everglades. However, Lake Okeechobee continued to rise and fall, the region was covered with rain, and engineers and city planners continued to battle with water. The 1926 Miami Hurricane caused Lake Okeechobee levees to fail and dozens of people who had just built and moved in below the lake drowned. Two years later, the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane claimed 2,500 lives when Lake Okeechobee once again surged over its levees. Politicians who suggested the Everglades were uninhabitable were silenced by other optimistic politicians when a four-story wall, named for President Herbert Hoover who was himself an engineer, was built around Lake Okeechobee that effectively cut off the water source from the Everglades.^[48]

Following the construction of the wall, South Florida endured a drought severe enough to cause massive wildfires in 1939. The population increase affected the plants and animals of the region when melaleuca trees introduced to help with draining proliferated, as did Australian pines, brought in by developers as windbreaks. The region's timber was devastated for lumber supplies. Alligators, birds, frogs, and fish were hunted on massive scales. Wading birds, valuable for their feathers, would often be watched by hunters or people claiming to be Audubon Society wardens, only to shoot entire rookeries for their plumes.^[49] However, the largest impact people had on the region was the diversion of water away from the Everglades. Canals were deepened and widened and the water levels fell dramatically causing chaos in food webs.^[50] By 1997 the lack of fresh water to the Everglades that recharged the Biscayne Aquifer gave way to salt water that was seeping into the porous limestone.^[51]

A freelance writer and former reporter for the Miami Herald, initially doing a story on the Miami River, began to learn more about the Everglades in the 1940s. Marjory Stoneman Douglas researched the land for five years, publishing The Everglades: River of Grass in 1947 describing the Everglades in great detail and then adding a chapter on its disappearance. She wrote, "What had been a river of grass and sweet water that had given meaning and life and uniqueness to this enormous geography through centuries in which man had no place here was made, in one chaotic gesture of greed and ignorance and folly, a river of fire."^[52] The book has sold 500,000 copies since its initial writing and Douglas' continued dedication to ecology conservation earned her the nicknames "Grand Dame of the Everglades", "Grandmother of the Everglades" and "the anti-Christ" for her singular focus at the expense of some political interests.^[53] She founded and served as president for an organization called Friends of the Everglades, initially intended to protest the construction of a jetport in 1968 that was to be built in the middle of the Everglades. Successful in that confrontation, the organization has grown to 4,000 members, dedicating themselves to its preservation.^[54] She wrote and spoke about the importance of the Everglades until her death at age 108.

[edit] Park history

Everglades National Park*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Image:Evergladesoverlook.JPG
Type	Natural
Criteria	viii, ix, x
Reference	76
Region†	Europe and North America
Inscription history
Inscription	1979  (3rd Session)
Endangered	1993-2007
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List. † Region as classified by UNESCO.

The first proposal for the national park was made in 1923 by Floridians hoping to save at least part of the Everglades and the animals that inhabited them for future generations. However, a land developer turned conservationist named Ernest F. Coe was the driving force behind the establishment of a national park for the Everglades. Coe, who was eventually nicknamed "Father of Everglades National Park", formed the Tropical Everglades National Park Association in 1928, later to be known as Everglades National Park Association.^[4] Coe served as executive chairman of the Tropical Everglades National Park Commission, developed by the state legislature of Florida to study the formation of a protected area. Coe's original plan was for the park to include more than 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km²) of land that included Key Largo and Big Cypress, and Coe was so dedicated to this design that his unwillingness to compromise almost cost the existence of the park. Various other interests, including land developers and sport hunters demanded some of the land be trimmed.^[55] One of the tasks of the commission was to find out how to raise money to purchase the land.^[56] The timing was unfortunate as it coincided with the arrival of the Great Depression in the United States, and there was no money to purchase the land for the park.^[57]

It was authorized as a National Park on May 30, 1934 by the US House of Representatives, but it passed only with a rider that ensured no money would be allotted to the project for at least five years.^[58] Coe's passion and Senator Spessard Holland's politicking helped to fully establish it, after Holland was able to negotiate 1,300,000 acres (5,300 km²) of the park, leaving out Big Cypress, Key Largo, the Turner River area, and a 22,000-acre (89 km²) tract of land called "The Hole in the Donut" that was too highly valued for agriculture. Miami Herald editor John Pennekamp was instrumental in getting the Florida legislature to raise $2 million US to purchase the private land inside the park boundaries.^[59] It was dedicated by President Harry Truman on December 6, 1947, one month after Douglas' book was released,^[60] and the same year as several tropical storms struck South Florida, prompting 1,400 miles (2,300 km) of canals to be built to send all the water farmers and residents did not want to the ocean.^[57]

Little had changed by the 1960s, when the park was in danger of dying due to the continued diversion of water to metropolitan areas. Although the Army Corps of Engineers was given the directive to provide enough water to the park to sustain it, the Corps was not following through.^[61] Political battles were fought over the amount of water the park was receiving, as some of its rivers and lakes became muddy puddles. In 1972 a bill was introduced to curb development in South Florida and ensure the national park would receive the amount of water it needed. Efforts turned to repairing the damage wrought by decades of mismanagement. A change came in the focus of the Army Corps of Engineers in 1990 from constructing dams and canals to constructing "purely environmental projects".^[62]

The regions that Ernest Coe originally imagined would be in the park were slowly added to Everglades National Park or incorporated into other protected areas: Biscayne National Park, Big Cypress National Preserve, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park on Key Largo, Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and "The Hole in the Donut" were protected over the decades since the park's opening in 1947. Everglades National Park was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976. On November 10, 1978, most of the park was declared a wilderness area. Wilderness designations covered 1,296,505 acres (5247 km²) in 2003 — about 86 % of the park. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on October 24, 1979 and as a Wetland of International Importance on June 4, 1987.^[63]

[edit] Restoration efforts

President George H. W. Bush signed the Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act on December 13, 1989 that added 109,506 acres (443.16 km²) on the eastern side of the park, closed the park to airboats, directed the Department of the Army to restore water to the Everglades National Park as well as the restoration of the ecosystems within the park, and "Direct(ed) the Secretary of the Interior to manage the Park in order to maintain the natural abundance, diversity, and ecological integrity of native plants and animals, as well as the behavior of native animals, as part of their ecosystem."^[64] President George H. W. Bush remarked in his statement at signing the act, "...Through this legislation that river of grass may now be restored to its natural flow of water."^[65] In 1993 it was placed on the List of World Heritage Sites in danger.

A federal effort to restore the Everglades was passed by Congress in 2000, named the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) with the objectives of "restoration, preservation and protection of the south Florida ecosystem while providing for other water-related needs of the region,"^[66] and claiming to be the largest environmental restoration in history. It proved to be a controversial plan as its detractors worried that it "relies on uncertain technologies, overlooks water quality, subsidizes damaging growth and delays its environmental benefits."^[67] Supporters of the plan included the National Audubon Society, who the Friends of the Everglades and the Biodiversity Legal Foundation accused of selling out to agricultural and business interests.

CERP projects are to capture 1.7 billion gallons of fresh water every day, store it in underground reservoirs and release the water to areas within 16 counties in South Florida. Approximately 35,600 acres (144 km²) of manmade wetlands are to be constructed to confine contaminated water before it is released to the Everglades, and 240 miles (390 km) of canals that divert water away from the Everglades are to be destroyed.^[68] During the first five years of implementation, CERP was responsible for the purchase of 207,000 acres (840 km²) of land at a cost of $1 billion US. The plan aims to spend $10.5 billion US over a span of 30 years, combining 50 different projects and giving them 5-year timelines.^[69] The State of Florida must keep with the timelines set by CERP, or federal justices are able to terminate the settlement and stop federal funding of the restoration projects.^[70] In 2007, Everglades National Park was removed from the List of World Heritage Sites in danger.^[71]

Everglades National Park was hit straight on by Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma, and Rita in 2005. Hurricanes are a natural part of the ecosystem in the park; Hurricane Donna in 1960 left nothing in the mangroves but "standing dead snags" several miles wide, but 30 years later the ecosystem had completely recovered.^[72] Predictably, what suffered the most from the 2005 hurricanes were manmade structures in the park. The visitors center and lodge at Flamingo were damaged by 125 mph (201 km/h) winds and an 8 ft (2.4 m) storm surge. The lodge currently remains closed, and the visitors center was significantly damaged and is open only during the busy season from December to March.^[73]

[edit] Park economics

The National Park Service keeps annual statistics on the income of each park, and the impact of each park on local economies. Everglades National Park reported in 2005 a budget of over $28 million US. Of that, $14.8 million is granted from the National Park Service, and $13.5 million from various other agencies such as CERP, donations, and other grants.^[74] The entry fee for vehicles in 2006 ranged from $10 US up to $200 for bus tours. Of the near one million visitors to Everglades National Park in 2006, more than 38,000 of those were overnight campers, paying $16 a night or $10 a night for backcountry permits.^[75] Visitors spent $2.6 million US^[74] within the park and $48 million in local economies.^[76] More than 900 jobs were sustained or created within or by the park, and the park added value of $35 million to local economies.^[76]

[edit] Activities

The park's busiest season for visitors is from December to March when temperatures are lowest and mosquitoes are at their least active. There are four visitor centers: on the Tamiami Trail (US 41) directly west of Miami is the Shark Valley Visitor Center. Adjacent to the Shark Valley Visitor Center is a 5-mile path that leads to a 2-story observation tower. Tram tours are available during the busy season. Closest to Homestead on State Road 9336 is the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, from where starts a 38-mile (61 km) road winding through pine rockland, cypress, freshwater marl prairie, coastal prairie, and mangroves. Various hiking trails are accessible from the gravel road, that runs to a marina and Flamingo Visitor Center which is open and staffed during the busiest times of the year. The Gulf Coast Visitor Center is closest to Everglades City on State Road 29 on the west coast. Gulf Coast Visitor Center gives canoers access to the Wilderness Waterway, a 99-mile (160 km) canoe trail that extends to the Flamingo Visitor Center.^[77] Access to the western coast of the park and the Ten Thousand Islands as well as the various key islands in Florida Bay are accessible only by boat.

[edit] Trails

There are several walking trails in the park that vary in walking difficulty on Pine Island, where visitors can walk through hardwood hammocks, pinelands, and freshwater sloughs. Starting at the Royal Palm Visitor Center, the Anhinga Trail is a half-mile self-guided tour through a sawgrass marsh where visitors can see alligators, marsh and wading birds, turtles, and bromeliads up close. Its proximity to Homestead, Florida and its accessibility make it one of the most visited sites in the park. The Gumbo Limbo Trail is another self-guided trail, paved and about half a mile long. It loops through a canopy of hardwood hammocks that include gumbo limbo, royal palms, strangler figs, and a variety of epiphytes.^[3] There are 28 miles (45 km) of trails through Long Pine Key excellent for offroad cycling through the pine rocklands in the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area. They start near the Long Pine Key campgrounds. Two boardwalks allow visitors to walk through a cypress forest at Pa-Hay-O-Kee, that also features a 2-story overlook, and another at Mahogany Hammock that takes hikers through a dense forest in the middle of a freshwater marl prairie. Closer to Flamingo, visitors have the opportunity to hike more rugged trails that take them through mangrove swamps, and along Florida Bay. Christian Point Trail, Snake Bight Trail, Rowdy Bend Trail and Coastal Prairie Trail are best for viewing shorebirds and wading birds along mangroves. Portions of the trails may be closed due to hurricane damage, and ranger-led tours may take place in the busier season only.^[3]

[edit] Camping

There are camping sites available year-round in Everglades National Park. Front country camping, with some services can be located in Long Pine Key, closest to the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, where there are 108 sites accessible by car. There are 234 campsites with some services available near Flamingo. Recreational vehicle camping is also available at these sites, although not with all necessary services. Backcountry permits are required for campsites along the Wilderness Waterway, Gulf Coast sites, and sites in the various keys. Several backcountry sites are chickees, and others are beach and ground sites.^[73]

[edit] Boating & fishing

Low powered motorboats are allowed within the park boundaries, although the majority of salt water areas are no-wake zones to protect manatees from harm. Jet skis, airboats, and other motorized personal watercraft are prohibited. However, there are many trails for kayaks and canoes. A state fishing license is required for fishing, and although fresh water licenses are not sold in the park, a salt water license may be available. Swimming is not recommended anywhere within the park boundaries. Water moccasins, snapping turtles, alligators and crocodiles thrive in fresh water, and sharks, barracuda, and sharp dangerous coral are plentiful in salt water. Visibility is low in both kinds of water.^[78]

[edit] Threats to the park and ecology

[edit] Diversion and quality of water

Less than 50% of the original Everglades exist today, and populations of wading birds have dwindled 90% from their original numbers. The diversion of water from the Everglades to population in South Florida's still-growing metropolitan areas is Everglades National Park's number one threat. In the 1950s and 1960s, 1,400 miles (2,300 km) of canals and levees, 150 gates and spillways, and 16 pumping stations were constructed to pump water toward cities and away from the Everglades. Low levels of water leave fishes vulnerable to reptiles and birds, but sawgrass dries and can burn or die off, which in turn kills apple snails and other animals that wading birds feed upon.^[77] Entire populations of birds were known to have disappeared in the 1960s,^[79] but The Miami Herald reported in 2006 that the numbers of wading birds had risen significantly, and although park managers are optimistic, they are hesitant to declare the bird populations recovered.^[80]

The west coast of Florida relies on desalinized water; their needs for fresh water are too great for the land to provide. Nitrates in the underground water system and high levels of mercury also impact the quality of fresh water the park receives.^[77] One Florida panther was found dead in Shark Water Slough, with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human.^[81] Increased occurrences of algae blooms and red tide in Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay have been traced to the amounts of controlled water released from Lake Okeechobee.^[82] The visitor brochure given out to all visitors to Everglades National Park includes a statement that reads, "Freshwater flowing into the park is engineered. With the help of pumps, floodgates, and retention ponds along the park's boundary, the Everglades is presently on life support, alive but diminished."^[77]

[edit] Urban encroachment

A series of levees on the eastern border of the national park marks the line of demarcation between urban areas and protected areas. But development into these areas threatens the park system. Florida still attracts nearly a thousand new residents every year, and building residential, commercial and industrial zones near Everglades National Park stresses the water balance and ecosystems within the park. On the park's western border, Ft. Myers, Naples and Cape Coral are growing, and no system of levees is in place to mark the border of the park on that side. ^[83]A scoring system of national parks sponsored by National Geographic rated both Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve very low at 32 out of 100, justifying it by stating: "Encroachment by housing and retail development has thrown the precious ecosystem into a tailspin, and if humankind doesn't back off, there will be nothing left of one of this country's most amazing treasures."^[84]

[edit] Endangered and threatened animals

• The American crocodile is found only in South Florida within the United States. Once overhunted for their hides, today they are protected from hunting, but are still threatened due to habitat destruction, and injury from cars when they cross roads to get from one waterway to another. There are about 50 nests in Everglades and Biscayne National Parks and about 1,000 crocodiles in Florida.^[85] Numbers of crocodiles in South Florida have risen recently along with the numbers of alligators, and crocodiles were reclassified as "threatened" in the United States in 2007, although they will remain endangered in the Caribbean and South America.^[86]
• One of the best known endangered animals in Florida, there are less than 100 Florida panthers in the wild. They are only to be found in South Florida, and their biggest threats include habitat destruction due to human development, vehicle collisions, inbreeding due to limited genetic pool, parasites and diseases, and mercury poisoning.^[87]
• Four species of sea turtles including the Atlantic green sea turtle, Atlantic hawksbill, Atlantic loggerhead, and the Atlantic ridley are endangered and the leatherback sea turtle is threatened. Although numbers are difficult to determine due to the fact that males and juveniles do not return to where they were born, females lay eggs in the same location every year. Habitat loss and illegal poaching of eggs and turtles and destructive fishing practices are the biggest threats to these animals.^[88]
• The Cape Sable seaside sparrow is the only bird restricted to Everglades National Park. In 1981 there were 6,656 Cape Sable seaside sparrows reported in the park, but surveys over 10 years documented a decline to an estimated 2,624 birds by 2002.^[89] Attempts to return natural levels of water to the park have been controversial; Cape Sable seaside sparrows nest about a foot off the ground, and rising water levels may threaten future populations, as well as threatening the endangered snail kite.^[90]
• The Snail kite eats apple snails almost exclusively, and the Everglades is the only place in the United States this bird of prey exists. They are affected by the numbers of apple snails available. There is some evidence that the population may be increasing, but loss of habitat and its food source keep the estimated number of these birds to only several hundred.^[91]
• The West Indian manatee has recently been upgraded from endangered to threatened. Collisions with boats and habitat loss are still its biggest threats.

[edit] Drought and fire

Fire naturally occurs sparked by lightning storms, but takes its heaviest toll when water levels are low. Hardwood hammock and cypress trees are susceptible to heavy damage due to fire, and some may take decades to grow back.^[77] Peat built up over centuries in the marsh can cause fires to burn deep scars in the soil. "An extreme drought can be viewed almost as catastrophic as a volcano. It can reshape the entire landscape. It can take 1,000 years to produce two inches of peat, and you can lose those couple of inches in a week," said Fred Sklar of the South Florida Water Management District in 2007.^[92]

[edit] Non-native species

A growing threat recently has become the introduction of non-native species into the park. The melaleuca tree causes the most destruction of any plant species, taking large amounts of water and leaving marsh areas desiccated. Brazilian pepper has invaded as well, competing with native plants that are food plants for animals, and are very hard to eradicate.^[93] The Burmese python is one of the most formidable animal species. Capable of growing up to 20 feet (6.1 m) in length, pythons have been seen struggling with alligators by park visitors. "These [snakes] are now the huge apex predator in the Everglades. There's nothing bigger." said Kenneth Krysko from the Florida Museum of Natural History.^[94] One python was found in 1979, then none until 1995, but from 2001 to 2005, more than 230 pythons were discovered within the park boundaries,^[94] and they have begun reproducing on their own.^[95] Pythons are immediately captured and removed when found. Park biologists say that the exotic pet trade and pet owners who release pythons into the wilderness are responsible for the existence of the snakes within the Everglades. "All of the Burmese pythons that we see in the park are a product of the international pet trade," said Skip Snow, wildlife biologist at Everglades National Park.^[96] Coyotes have also been spotted in the park, as well as in Big Cypress National Preserve, and park managers have connected their growth to the lower numbers of wild pigs in both parks.^[97]

[edit] See also

• Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan
• Nike Missile Site HM-69

[edit] Bibliography

• Grunwald, Michael. (2006) The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780743251051
• Robertson, Jr. William. (1989) Everglades: The Park Story. Florida National Parks & Monuments Association, Inc. ISBN 0945142013
• Tebeau, Charlton W. (1955) The Story of the Chokoloskee Bay County and the reminiscenses of pioneer C. S. "Ted" Smallwood. University of Miami Press.
• Tebeau, Charlton W. (1963) They Lived in the Park: The Story of Man in the Everglades National Park. University of Miami Press.
• Tebeau, Charlton W. (1968) Man in the Everglades. University of Miami Press.
• Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004) Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species. Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 9781561643097

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Official site: Everglades National Park
• The Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas Photo exhibit created by the State Archives of Florida
• Reclaiming the Everglades: South Florida's Natural History
• Everglades National Park
• Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act
• The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP)
• UNESCO World Heritage Centre
• Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness

v • d • e Protected Areas of Florida
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Trails	Gainesville-Hawthorne • General James A. Van Fleet • Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad Trail • Withlacoochee
State Forests	Belmore • Big Shoals Public Lands • Blackwater River • Carl Duval Moore • Cary • Cottage Hill • Deep Creek • Etoniah Creek • Four Creeks • Goethe • Holopaw • Jennings • John Bethea • Lake George • Lake Talquin • Lake Wales Ridge • Little-Big Econ • Matanzas • Myakka • Okaloacoochee Slough • Picayune Strand • Pine Log • Point Washington • Ralph E. Simmons Memorial • Ross Prairie • Seminole • Tate's Hell • Tiger Bay • Twin Rivers • Wakulla • Watson Island • Welaka • Withlacoochee
Florida Department of Environmental Protection

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