Ernest Shackleton

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Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, Kt., CVO, OBE (February 15 1874 – January 5 1922) was an Anglo-Irish explorer. Born in Kilkea, Ireland, Shackleton embarked on four Antarctic expeditions and was knighted for travelling the furthest south of any contemporary human on his voyage aboard Nimrod. Shackleton was married to Lady Emily Dorman Shackleton, and was involved in land-based work which included an unsuccessful Parliamentary run and various business ventures aimed at raising revenue for his expeditions.

Shackleton is most noteworthy for leading the ill-fated Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, colloquially known as the "Endurance Expedition" and "Shackleton's voyage", between 1914 and 1916. Although Shackleton failed the goal of crossing the Antarctic continent on foot, he is now known for his leadership abilities which were evidenced when Endurance became stuck in ice. Shackleton, known by contemporaries as "the boss", was able to lead his men to refuge on Elephant Island before heading across 1,287 kilometres (800 mi) of the open Antarctic Ocean to South Georgia Island with four other men. Upon reaching the remote island, Shackleton crossed severe mountainous terrain to reach a whaling station at Grytviken. Once he arrived, he was able to muster a ship to rescue his men left on Elephant Island. All men on Endurance survived their ordeal in the Antarctic, after having spent 22 months in the Antarctic.^[1][2][3]

Additionally, Shackleton was a key figure in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration alongside the likes of Roald Amundsen, Douglas Mawson, and Robert Falcon Scott, each of whom became widely famed for their exploits, which captivated the imagination of the public. In recent times, he has become known for his efforts as a leader and has thus been the topic of many books and films that focus on the explorer's ability to lead men through challenging conditions.^[4]

[edit] Life

[edit] Childhood

Shackleton was of English-Irish ancestry and born in Kilkea, County Kildare, Ireland, on February 15, 1874, about 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Dublin. Ernest was second of ten children and first of two sons in a family led by father Henry and mother Henrietta Sophia Gaven.^[1] In childhood he was described as "bright, good-natured,... and confident". In 1880, at six years old, Ernest moved with his father who was studying medicine to Dublin.^[1] Four years later, the family moved from Ireland to Sydenham in suburban London because of the assassination of Lord Frederick Cavendish and the better income opportunity. Here Shackleton would spend the remainder of his childhood.^[1]

As a boy, Ernest was schooled by a governess until the age of 11, when he matriculated at Fir Lodge Preparatory School in West Hill, and after primary schooling he was educated at Dulwich College. The young Shackleton did not distinguish himself as a scholar and was noted as being "bored" by his studies. He was quoted later saying:

"never learned much geography at school, for instance... Literature, too, consisted in the dissection, the parsing, the analyzing ... teachers should be very careful not to spoil their taste for poetry for all time"

– Ernest Shackleton, ^[2]

In his final semester at the college he was able to place himself fifth among his class of thirty-one.^[5] Despite scholarly shortcoming, Shackleton served as inspiration to boys at the college and was recognised as an Old Alleynian, an honorific given to deserving alumni.^[2] Furthermore, throughout his career, Shackleton was a voracious reader, which contributed to broadening his horizons.^[6]

[edit] Maritime career

At sixteen, Shackleton embarked on his career by joining the merchant marine rather than the Royal Navy. He chose this path for two reasons. First, the fee to join a cadet ship was too much and second, his father procured him employment at the North Western Shipping Company aboard the sailing vessel Houghton Tower.^[2] This position allowed Shackleton to experience life at sea without the strictness of the Navy. Hence, the young man formed acquaintances with a variety of people, from "officer, engineers, and apprentices alike."^[4] Following his initial voyage, Ernest agreed to a four-year commitment and in 1898, at the age of twenty-four, he became a master seaman which enabled him to command a vessel.^[6]

After completion of the program, Shackleton's father arranged a meeting between Ernest and Antarctic-donor Llewellyn Longstaff who admired the young man's keenness. When Ernest asked him for assistance in joining Robert Falcon Scott's expedition to the Antarctic, Longstaff complied. Shackleton soon found that he had been accepted to the National Antarctic Expedition.^[1]

[edit] Expedition years

[edit] Discovery Expedition 1901–02

Main article: Discovery Expedition

The British National Antarctic Expedition, also known as the Discovery Expedition after the ship, RRS Discovery (1901–04),^[7][8] was a British expedition led by Robert Falcon Scott with the purpose of undertaking scientific research and exploration along the coast of the Ross Sea in Antarctica. This would be Scott's first command, although he did have experience in the Royal Navy.^[9] Upon meeting Scott, Shackleton was assigned the duty of outfitting Discovery for the expedition.^[1]

Discovery departed London on July 31, 1901, for Antarctica.^[10]The team spent two summers in Antarctica and Shackleton joined Scott and Dr Edward Wilson in a trek to the South Pole in 1902.^[5] The journey proceeded under difficult conditions as the food was in short supply and the party was forced to march up to 25 miles (40 km) in one day. Scott, Wilson and Shackleton reached as far south as 82° 17' S on December 31, 1902, however they were unable to continue due to severe conditions and terrain.^[5] Notably, they were 857 kilometres (533 mi) from the Pole and 412 kilometres (256 mi) further south than any human before.^[11]

Because of his illness, Shackleton was sent home aboard the ship Morning by Scott, even though he had nearly fully recovered.^[5] There have been suggestions that Scott disliked Shackleton's popularity and used health as an excuse to remove him.^[2] Indeed, Shackleton had been well-liked, even cheering the men by producing a Christmas pudding he had hidden in his socks.^[11] On the other hand, it has been alleged that Scott, when confronted by the ship's doctor with evidence that Shackleton was not particularly sick said, "If he does not go back sick he will go back in disgrace."^[11] Despite these claims both Shackleton and Scott continued to be on friendly terms in subsequent correspondence, although the experience has been described as a "defining moment of [Shackleton's] life."^[2][12]

[edit] Interim between the Discovery and Nimrod expeditions

Shackleton left The Discovery on February 28, 1902, to cheers from her crew and set off on Morning for Lyttleton, New Zealand.^[5][2] In mid-June 1903, he returned to London to good reception, particularly from Sir John Murray, President of the Royal Scottish Geographic Society and Sir Joseph Hooker, a surgeon from an earlier expedition to the Antarctic. The kinship he found allowed them to present him as the first praiseworthy person to return from the Discovery Expedition, as the remainder of the team had not yet returned.^[5]

In London, Shackleton was offered a position in the Royal Navy as a Lieutenant, which could lead to a promising career in the merchant marine. Shackleton, however, opted to assist in outfitting of a supply ship for his old expedition. Additionally, he was offered the position of "secretary and treasury" with the Royal Geographic Society.^[5] He was searching for an office job in order to marry, which he did. On April 9, 1904, he was wedded to Emily Mary Dorman.

In 1906, Shackleton ventured into politics, supporting the Liberal Unionist Party and unsuccessfully standing for Parliament in the 1906 general election in Dundee garnering 3,865 votes to the victor's 9,276.^[13] Concomitantly, Shackleton prepared for another expedition to the Antarctic by raising funds and thus was active in business ventures such as a tobacco company and as a mill promoter. The owner, William Beardmore was impressed with Shackleton and helped sponsor his next expedition.^[3] Additionally, he raised funds via his wealthy friends.^[5] Through these efforts, Shackleton convinced Sir Phillip Lee Brocklehurst and author Campbell Mackellar to finance his expedition.^[5] With funds attained, Shackleton now presented his idea for an Antarctic expedition to the Royal Geographic Society in competition with Henryk Arctowski. Shackleton's proposal was chosen and on February 12, 1907, the details of the voyage, named the British Imperial Antarctic Expedition, were published in the Royal Society's newsletter, Geographic Journal.^[5]

[edit] Nimrod Expedition 1907–09

Main article: Nimrod Expedition

On January 1, 1908, Nimrod sailed from Lyttleton Harbour beginning the British Imperial Antarctic Expedition.^[14][5] The trip's goal was to land a party between nine and twelve men at the site of Discovery's landing in February 1908 and to return to retrieve them in 1909. The party was to break into three and explore King Edward Land and Mount Melbourne. The third and main team was to reach the geographic South Pole.^[5]

To conserve coal, the ship was towed 2,700 kilometres (1,678 mi) by Konya to the Antarctic ice. Shackleton organised the trip and would serve as leader.^[3] Shackleton arranged for the expense to be split by the New Zealand government and the Union Steamship Company.^[5][3]Upon arrival on January 14, 1908, at the Antarctic Circle, the crew found that Discovery's base camp was inaccessible. Accordingly, Shackleton's base camp was built on Ross Island at Cape Royds, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of plan.^[3][5] The party was in high spirits despite the difficult conditions and sickness of crew members, including a frostbitten toe that resulted in amputation. During this trip Shackleton acquired his nickname, "the boss" because of his leadership abilities, which depended on camaraderie and admiration. Although the expedition team was unable to attain its goal of reaching the South Pole, Shackleton and his companions reached 88° 23' S: a point only 180 kilometres (112 mi) from the Pole. Accomplishments also included the first ascent of Mount Erebus, the location of the Magnetic South Pole by Douglas Mawson, Edgeworth David and MacKay (January 16, 1909), and locating the Beardmore Glacier passage (named after Shackleton's patron). The group was the first to cross Trans-Antarctic mountain range and to set foot on the South Polar Plateau.^[3]

When the party returned to their base camp on February 28, 1909, after subsisting on half-rations, Shackleton found a letter stating that Nimrod would sail on February 26. In response, the crew burnt the camp to attract the departing ship's attention. On March 1, 1909, Shackleton departed for home and returned to the United Kingdom a hero. He was knighted for reaching the furthest south of any human at that time.^[5] Regarding the failure to reach the South Pole, Shackleton remarked to his wife: "Better a live donkey than a dead lion."^[15] It would be three more years before Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen became the first to reach the South Pole, followed shortly by Robert Scott's ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition.^[16]

[edit] Endurance Expedition 1914–16

Main articles: Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition and Ross Sea Party

Although the South Pole journey was accomplished, there was still interest in the Antarctic. Again, Shackleton solicited investment from donors. The largest contribution came from James Key Caird who contributed £24,000. Shackleton was further able to solicit funds from the British Government (£10,000), the Royal Geographical Society (£1000), Dame Janet Stancomb-Wills, daughter of a tobacco tycoon, and Dudley Docker of the Birmingham Small Arms Company.^[17] Interest in the expedition was enormous: Shackleton received more than 5,000 applications for participation. Fifty-six men were chosen and divided into two groups, and Shackleton acquired the two required ships: Endurance for the Weddell Sea team and Aurora for the Ross Sea Party.^[18]

Endurance departed Plymouth on August 8, 1914, for the Antarctic with 28 men.^A[18] As Endurance approached Antarctica, ice conditions worsened, until on January 17 Endurance became frozen in place, and Shackleton ordered the ship wintered.^B[18]

In May, the Antarctic sun set for the last time before winter, and Endurance kept its position until spring approached in the hope that the warmer weather would free the vessel from the ice.^[19] When spring arrived, however, the breaking of the ice and subsequent movement of giant ice floes splintered the ship's hull.^[20] Although Endurance withstood considerable stress, on October 24 she was forced against a large floe, and water began pouring in.^C After a few days, on October 27, Shackleton gave the abandon ship order, and on November 21, 1915, Endurance finally slipped beneath the ice at 69° 00′ S, 51° 30′ W.^D[19][18]

For roughly five and a half months Shackleton and his men made attempts to sledge the approximately 400 kilometres (250 mi) to Paulet Island. However, because of terrain difficulties and the constantly buckling sea ice, the party was unable to reach the island and only succeeded in using much of their valuable rations. This proved to be a problem as local animals disappeared; food became scarce, and the men resorted to eating their dogs.^E[19]

On April 9, an ice flow broke their camp into two, and Shackleton decided that the crew enter their lifeboats and proceed to land. Initially, Shackleton had planned to lead the crew to Deception Island, about 320 kilometres (200 mi) away.^F However, after a few days in the boats, the crew realised that their scarce resources would not allow them to make that journey, and Shackleton opted for the closer Elephant Island. After seven days at sea, the men landed there.^[18]

[edit] Voyage of James Caird

Elephant Island was an inhospitable place far from any shipping routes and thus a poor point from which to await rescue.^[19] Consequently, Shackleton felt it essential that he set out immediately upon arrival, and to him, it was obvious that he must head back to South Georgia, even if it meant traversing 1,287 kilometres (800 mi) of open ocean in one of the lifeboats. The lifeboat James Caird was chosen for the trip.

The waters that Shackleton was to sail in his vessel of 7 metres (23 ft) are among the most treacherous in the world.^G[18] Weather reports confirm that gale-force winds of 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph) to 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph) are present in the Drake passage on an average of 200 days per year causing ocean swells of 6 metres (20 ft), and some report that waves of 18 metres (59 ft) are not uncommon.^H[21] Shackleton refused to pack supplies for more than four weeks knowing that if they had not made land by that time, that the boat would have been lost. And indeed, after 14 days, the crew was within sight of South Georgia. Of the journey, Shackleton wrote:

At midnight I was at the tiller and suddenly noticed a line of clear sky between the south and south-west. I called to the other men that the sky was clearing, and then a moment later I realised that what I had seen was not a rift in the clouds but the white crest of an enormous wave. During twenty-six years' experience of the ocean in all its moods I had not encountered a wave so gigantic. It was a mighty upheaval of the ocean, a thing quite apart from the big white-capped seas that had been our tireless enemies for many days. I shouted, "For God's sake, hold on! It's got us!" Then came a moment of suspense that seemed drawn out into hours. White surged the foam of the breaking sea around us. We felt our boat lifted and flung forward like a cork in breaking surf. We were in a seething chaos of tortured water; but somehow the boat lived through it, half-full of water, sagging to the dead weight and shuddering under the blow. We baled with the energy of men fighting for life, flinging the water over the sides with every receptacle that came to our hands, and after ten minutes of uncertainty we felt the boat renew her life beneath us.

– Ernest Shackleton, South

Leaving the others at the landing point on South Georgia, Shackleton and three men traveled over mountainous terrain for 36 hours to Stromness. No man had previously been able to venture more than 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) inland on the island.^[3] Staggering into Stromness, Shackleton and his team were welcomed into the whaling manager's house.^[22]

[edit] Rescue

Shackleton's first three attempts to rescue his men on Elephant Island failed. Desperate, he finally appealed to the Chilean government, which offered the help of Yelcho, a small seagoing tug from its navy. Yelcho reached Elephant Island on August 30, and Shackleton, in a quick operation, evacuated all 22 men, who had been stranded for 105 days.^[3] The Ross Sea Party was still stranded at Cape Evans since Aurora had been stuck in ice for 10 months. Shackleton met that ship in New Zealand and then returned to rescue the Ross Sea Party. In all, every member of his expedition team survived.^[3]

[edit] World War I

Shackleton returned to England in May 1917, finding Europe in the midst of the First World War. He suffered from a heart condition, most likely due to the fatigue of his arduous journeys. He was too old to be conscripted, but nevertheless he volunteered for the army, repeatedly requesting to be sent to the front in France as a transport captain. Instead he was sent to Buenos Aires to boost British propaganda in South America. Unqualified as a diplomat, he unsuccessfully tried to persuade Argentina and Chile to enter the war on the side of the Allies. He returned home in 1918.^[23]

Shackleton was then asked to be the leader of a mission to Spitsbergen, an island above the Arctic Circle and to the north of Norway, in order to establish a British presence in that territory in the guise of a mining operation. However, in Tromsø, Shackleton suffered a heart attack and had to return. Despite this, he joined a military expedition to Murmansk, Russia in the autumn of 1918; however the Armistice was signed on November 11, 1918, two weeks after he landed in Russia, and Shackleton returned home to publish the book South, about his adventures in Antarctica.^[23][24]

[edit] Quest Expedition and Shackleton's death 1921–22

Main article: Shackleton-Rowett Expedition

Despite the events of the Endurance Expedition, Shackleton traveled again to the Antarctic aboard Quest. Although some of his former crew members had not received all of their pay from the Endurance Expedition, many of them signed on with their former "boss". The trip's purpose was to circumnavigate Antarctica by sea. However, when the party arrived in Rio de Janeiro, Shackleton fell ill after a heart attack. Even so, he refused to return the ship to England or seek treatment, and Quest continued south.^[23]

On January 4, 1922, the ship arrived off the coast of South Georgia. In the early morning hours, expedition member Macklin was called to Shackleton's cabin and noticed that he was ill. Macklin suggested to Shackleton that he "take things easier in the future", to which the reply was:

These would be the last words spoken by Sir Ernest Shackleton. A few moments later, at 2:50 a.m. on January 5, 1922, he suffered a fatal heart attack at the age of 47. His men offered to return his body to Britain; however a message was received from Shackleton's wife asking that he be buried in South Georgia. On March 5, 1922, Ernest Shackleton was buried at Grytviken, South Georgia.^[23][24]

[edit] Legacy

Although Shackleton was not immediately recognised for his achievements following the Endurance Expedition, in later years his life's work has been the focus of numerous books, television shows, charities, and memorials. Among these are the James Caird Society, organised in 1994, which was set up to preserve the memory of Shackleton's achievements. The society is named after Shackleton's benefactor, who was also honored by the naming of the 7 meter (23 foot) lifeboat used to travel between Elephant Island and South Georgia Island. Its first Life President was Shackleton's younger son, Edward Shackleton, and his granddaughter, Alexandra Shackleton, has been Life President since 1995. The James Caird itself is presently located at Dulwich College in London.^[25][26]

Additionally, Sir Ernest Shackleton is the subject of Shackleton, a two-part Channel 4 drama directed by Charles Sturridge and starring Kenneth Branagh as the explorer. The same story is related in greater detail in the book Endurance: Shackleton's Incredible Voyage, by Alfred Lansing.^[27]

Shackleton's grave, near the former whaling station at Grytviken on South Georgia is frequently visited by tourists from passing cruise ships. The British Antarctic Survey's logistics vessel RRS Ernest Shackleton (the replacement for RRS Bransfield) is named in his honour.^[28] Further, in May 1998 the Shackleton Memorial Library opened at the Scott Polar Research Institute at the University of Cambridge.^[29] He is also commemorated with a statue outside the headquarters of the Royal Geographical Society in Kensington, London, designed by the sculptor Charles Sargeant Jagger.^[30] Finally, in recent years there has been a revival of interest in Shackleton and he has become an icon of successful leadership for some modern business writers with several books extolling his leadership style.^[4] This is in addition to the multitude of books which focus on the explorer's work.

[edit] Advertisement rumour

There has been much discussion over whether Ernest Shackleton placed an advertisement in The Times for crewmembers for one of his expeditions which described the conditions of the trip in an illustrious manner. The alleged advertisement reads:

Men Wanted: For hazardous journey. Small wages, bitter cold, long months of complete darkness, constant danger, safe return doubtful. Honour and recognition in case of success.

Although widely attributed to Ernest Shackleton some have challenged that this text was ever written by Shackleton. It has been suggested that the as was originally created by Julian Watkins, the author of 100 Greatest Advertisements published in 1958, noting that the Shackleton ad ranked first in his list. Unlike most the others in the ranking, a photograph of the original ad was not supplied. Another responder posted a real notice, several paragraphs long, that Shackleton actually placed in an issue of the Geographic Journal. Regardless, the text has entered the popular consciousness in some form or another as associated with Shackleton.^I[32]

[edit] See also

• Discovery Expedition
• Nimrod Expedition
• Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition
• Ross Sea Party
• The Endurance: Shackleton's Legendary Antarctic Expedition (film)
• The Endurance (Ship)
• Antarctica
• Polar Exploration
• Robert Falcon Scott

[edit] Notes

1. ^A ,There are at least three glacial features along the Caird Coast with names attributed to Shackleton: the Stancomb-Wills Promontory, the Dawson-Lambton Glacier, and the McDonald Ice Rumples.^[18]
2. ^B Frank Worsley, captain of the Endurance, later wrote that after the ship had initially become surrounded by the ice, gales from the northeast swept the pack ice in the area from which they came into solidly around the ship.^[22]
3. ^C ,This was reported by Shackleton in South as well as by sailor Walter How in a later interview as incorporated into The Endurance (2000).^[18]
4. ^D , While stranded on the ice and during the time spent at Elephant Island, the men ate Weddell Seal, Crabeater Seal, and Elephant Seal.^[22]
5. ^E , It was common for men on Antarctic expeditions to eventually consume the meat of dogs and horses that were used. This was true for the expeditions of Amundsen, Scott, and Shackleton, alike. Beyond simply providing additional sustenance, fresh meat was known to help prevent scurvy. Like citrus fruit, fresh meat contains significant amounts of Vitamin C.
6. ^F , Another benefit of the volcanic Deception Island, which Shackleton does not mention in his book, South, would have been the luxury of geothermally-heated water. Deception Island, is often seen as a highlight of Antarctic cruises as people routinely swim in the warm water of Pendulum Cove, while avoiding some parts where the it is heated to the point that it would scald. The island's volcano last erupted in 1969.
7. ^G , Worsley wrote that it was common to hear phrases among the small crew such as "eight bells" indicating winds and seas of a force-8 gale on the Beaufort Scale.^[20]
8. ^H , Worsley wrote of 40 to 50 ft (13 to 16 m) swells which, crest-to-crest, would have been separated by a half mile (800 m), moving at 25 mph (40 km/h), and breaking waves that could strike at a speed of 50 mph (80 km/h).^[20]
9. ^I , A certain website recently held up a $100 USD prize for anyone who was able to locate the original advertisement; no winner has been found, and many taking part have posted their views that it seems unlikely that any such ad ever existed.^[32]

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

1. Davis, John King (1962). High Latitude. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 146. 
2. Huntford, Roland (1998). Shackleton. Carroll & Graf, 9–11, 117. ISBN 0786705442. 
3. Johnson, Rebecca L. (2003). Ernest Shackleton: Gripped by the Antarctic. Twenty-First Century Books, 1–12. ISBN 0786705442. 
4. Kimmell, Elizabeth Cody (1999). Ice Story: Shackleton's Lost Expedition. Clarion Books, 4–5. ISBN 0395915244. 
5. Mill, Hugh Robert (2006). The Life of Sit Ernest Shackleton. Kessinger Publishing, 24,72–80,104-115,150. ISBN 1428655271. 
6. Perkins, Dennis N.T. (2000). Leading at the Edge: Leadership Lessons from the Extraordinary Saga of Shackleton's Antarctica Expedition. AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn, 89. ISBN 0814405436. 
7. Preston, Diana (1998). A First Rate Tragedy: Robert Falcon Scott and the Race to the South Pole. Houghton Mifflin Books, 60–68. ISBN 0618002014. 
8. Rubin, Jeff (2005). Antarctica. Lonely Planet, 42–55. ISBN 1740590945. 
9. Scott, Robert Falcon; Charles Turley (1915). Voyages of Captain Scott: Retold from "The Voyage of the Discovery" and "Scott's Last Expedition". Dodd, Mead, 31. 
10. Shackleton, Ernest (1919). Shackleton South. 
11. Swan, R.A. (1999). Australian Dictionary of Biography. Australian National University, 4–5. ISBN 1833-7538. 
12. Worsley, Frank (1998). Shackleton's Boat Journey. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393318648. 

[edit] External links

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