Environmentalism

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Environmentalism is a concern for the preservation, restoration, or improvement of the natural environment, such as the conservation of natural resources, prevention of pollution, and certain land use actions. It often supports the struggles of indigenous peoples against the spread of globalization to their way of life, which is seen as less harmful to the environment. The study of practical environmentalism is split into two broad positions: the mainstream ‘anthropocentric’ or hierarchic, and the more radical ‘ecocentric’ or egalitarian.^[1][2]

Contents 1 History 1.1 Prehistory 1.2 Origins of environmental movement 2 Environmental movement 3 Preservation and conservation 4 Popular environmentalism 5 Dark Greens, Light Greens and Bright Greens 6 Environmental organizations and conferences 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

[edit] History

[edit] Prehistory

Though the modern environmental movement only arose after the Industrial Revolution, a concern for reducing environmental degradation has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, throughout history.

For example, in the Middle East, the earliest known writings concerned with environmental pollution were Arabic medical treatises written during the "Arab Agricultural Revolution", by writers such as Alkindus, Costa ben Luca, Rhazes, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. They were concerned with air contamination, water contamination, soil contamination, solid waste mishandling, and environmental assessments of certain localities.^[3]

In Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem.^[4][5] But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem there, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952.

[edit] Origins of environmental movement

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In Europe, it was the Industrial Revolution that gave rise to modern environmental pollution as it is generally understood today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.^[6] Environmentalism grew out of the amenity movement, which was a reaction to industrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution.

In the United States, the beginnings of an environmental movement can be traced as far back as 1739, when Benjamin Franklin and other Philadelphia residents, citing "public rights," petitioned the Pennsylvania Assembly to stop waste dumping and remove tanneries from Philadelphia's commercial district. The US movement expanded in the 1800s, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book Walden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the Sierra Club. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism.

In the 20th century environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly the American Bison. The death of the last Passenger Pigeon as well as the endangerment of the American Bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. Notably in 1916 the National Park Service was founded by President Woodrow Wilson.

In 1949 A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold was published. It explained Leopold’s belief that humankind should have moral respect for the environment and that it is unethical to harm it. The book is sometimes called the most influential book on conservation.

In 1962, Houghton Mifflin published Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on ecology or human health. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds.^[7] The resulting public concern lead to the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972. The limited use of DDT in disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness of environmental issues and interest into how people affect the environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in problems such as air pollution and oil spills, and environmental interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.

In the 1970s the Chipko movement was formed in India; influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential.

By the mid 1970s many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The Back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975.

In 1979 former NASA scientist James Lovelock published Gaia: A new look at life on Earth, which put forth the Gaia Hypothesis, that life on Earth can be understood as a single organism. This became an important part of the Deep Green ideology. Throughout the rest of the history of environmentalism there has been debate and argument between more radical followers of this Deep Green ideology and more mainstream environmentalists.

Environmentalism has also changed to deal with new issues such as global warming and genetic engineering.

[edit] Environmental movement

Main article: Environmental movement

The Environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the conservation and green movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. Additionally, throughout history, the movement has been incorporated into religion. The movement is represented by a range of organizations, from the large to grassroots, but a younger demographic than is common in other social movements (see green seniors). Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, the movement is not entirely united.

[edit] Preservation and conservation

Main article: Environmental preservation

Environmental preservation is the strict setting aside of natural resources to prevent damage caused by contact with humans or by certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and fishing. It is different from conservation; conservation allows for sustainable development, whereas preservation is complete restriction of development. Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of natural resources. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 in the United States, for example, was designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction caused by the damaging side-effects of economic growth and development.

[edit] Popular environmentalism

Environmentalist action has recently led to the development of a new subculture. It is mainly composed of the educated middle and upper-class.^{[citation needed]} These environmentally conscious types take special pride in their sustainable consumption patterns, shopping at grocery stores that trumpet earth-friendliness (such as Whole foods) and buying organic products.

Some environmentalists complain that this group of elites is shopping under the banner of environmentalism without espousing any of its true ideals. Because organic and sustainable products are often more expensive, purchasing them has become a mark of wealth. In another form of pretension, the young and single have gone so far as to even begin labeling themselves 'ecosexual.' Akin to the concept of the metrosexual, the ecosexual seeks out mates who share their environmentalist ideals. This aspect of the environmentalist movement has elements of socialization phenomenon in addition to changes of opinions on nature.^{[citation needed]}

It is argued that this new trend has taken the focus away from the real problems 'true' environmentalists hope to solve. Consumer items offer a deceptively easy, feel-good way to both save the world and one's reputation simultaneously. Yet, others reply that practicing sustainable consumption does not necessarily mean these consumers merely "vote with their dollar". Simultaneously, many would agree that the price of sustainable goods should be lowered. Lastly, many of those referred to as "ecosexuals" see nothing pretentious about having a preference for spending one's life with someone open to changing their lifestyle to a degree, whether its to live more sustainably or to accommodate a friend or partner.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Dark Greens, Light Greens and Bright Greens

Environmentalists are often split up into two groups, Dark and Light Greens. Light Greens are the more popular and more visible part of the environmental movement, which includes the more famous and public environmental groups such as Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and the Sierra Club. Light Greens do not follow environmentalism as a distinct political ideology, but rather seek greater environmental emphasis within existing ideologies such as Conservatism, Socialism or Liberalism, and often focus on environmentalism as a lifestyle choice.^[8]

Dark Greens are much more radical than light greens; they tend to believe that all the current political ideologies (that are referred to as industrialism) are corrupt and naturally lead to environmental degradation as they do not view mankind as part of the environment but rather as a higher form of life with the right to take what it wants from the environment. Dark Greens claim that this is caused by the emphasis on growth that exists within all existing ideologies referred to as ‘growth mania’. The dark green brand of environmentalism is associated with ideas of Deep Ecology, Post-materialism, Holism, the Gaia Theory of James Lovelock and the work of Fritjof Capra. The division between light and dark greens was visible in the fighting between Fundi and Realo factions of the German Green Party.^{[citation needed]}

More recently, a third group has emerged in the form of Bright Greens. This group believes that radical changes are needed in the economic and political operation of society in order to make it sustainable, but that better design, new technologies and more widely distributed social innovations (rather than either lifestyle changes or anti-growth reactions) are what's called for to make the transition to sustainability.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Environmental organizations and conferences

Main article: List of environmental organizations

Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be government-run or private (NGO). Several environmental organizations, among them the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund, are US groups that specialize in bringing lawsuits. Other environmentalist groups, such as the US-based National Wildlife Federation, the Nature Conservancy, and the Wilderness Society, and global groups like the World Wide Fund for Nature and Friends of the Earth, disseminate information, participate in public hearings, lobby, stage demonstrations, and may purchase land for preservation. Smaller groups, including Wildlife Conservation International, conduct research on endangered species and ecosystems. More radical organizations, such as Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally harmful. While Greenpeace is devoted to nonviolent confrontation as a means of bearing witness to environmental wrongs and bringing issues into the public realm for debate, the underground Earth Liberation Front engages in the clandestine destruction of property, the release of caged or penned animals, and other acts of marshal justice.

On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a UN conference in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and the follow-up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Some US colleges are now going green by signing the "President's Climate Commitment," a document that a college President can sign to enable said colleges to practice environmentalism by switching to solar power, etc.

[edit] See also

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• List of environmental issues
• List of environment topics
• Anti-nuclear movement
• Conservation ethic
• Conservation movement
• Ecology movement
• Ecocentrism
• Environmental agreements
• Environmental science
• Timeline of environmental events
• List of environmental books
• Environmentalism in music
• Environmentalism in film and television

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Hall, Jeremiah. History Of The Environmental Movement. Retrieved on 2006-11-25.

• Kovarik, William. Environmental History Timeline. Retrieved on 2006-11-25.

• Martell, Luke. Ecology and Society: An Introduction. Polity Press, 1994.

• Marco Verweij and Michael Thompson (eds), 2006, Clumsy solutions for a complex world: Governance, politics and plural perceptions, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

[edit] External links

• EnviroLink Network - A non-profit clearinghouse of environmental news and information
• Programme for Environmental Awareness in Schools (PEAS) - a nation-wide network in India, aimed at motivating students into action for the protection of nature.
• The Green Challenge - a website aimed at informing its readers of environmental issues worldwide, and motivating them to take part in campaigns.
• See The World's Most Polluted Places on Time.com (a division of Time Magazine)ar:تحرير حركة المحافظة على البيئة

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